Abstract
In this chapter, Political Islam is presented as a major factor in the reconfiguration of the regional order since the first Arab Spring movement through its critical role in regional conflicts. In national as well as regional contexts, Political Islam’s most notable actors—especially the Muslim Brotherhood and their ideological associates—play a conflict-generating role, both as subject and object. On the one hand, they are closely involved in the restructuring of the region. On the other hand, certain regional powers, namely the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Turkey, and Qatar, have an interest in making a political issue out of their existence. Political Islam’s growing influence throughout the region polarizes the societies of the Gulf Region and the broader Middle East. It provides an integrative element or enemy image, which serves to facilitate the consolidation of new regional alliances by means of threat perceptions and power options. Against this background, this chapter offers a comparative analysis of the formation of new regional axes and the strategies deployed by the four mentioned states for coping with Political Islam.
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Notes
- 1.
John L. Esposito, ed., Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism, or Reform? (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 1997); Graham E. Fuller, The Future of Political Islam (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003); and Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).
- 2.
Asef Bayat, Making Islam Democratic: Social Movements and the Post-Islamist Turn (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 7–9.
- 3.
Joel Beinin and Joe Stork, eds., Political Islam: Essays from Middle East Report (London: Tauris, 1997), 73–75.
- 4.
John L. Esposito, Islam and Politics, 4th ed. (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1998); Frédéric Volpi and Ewan Stein, “Islamism and the State after the Arab Uprisings: Between People Power and State Power,” Democratization 22, no. 2 (2015): 276–93, https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2015.1010811.
- 5.
Quintan Wiktorowicz, “Anatomy of the Salafi Movement,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29, no. 3 (2006): 207–39, https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100500497004.
- 6.
In Egypt the Freedom and Justice Party (FJP), in Libya the Justice and Construction Party (JCP), in Algeria the Mouvement de la Société pur la Paix (MSP), in Jordan the Islamic Action Front Party (IAFP), in Syria the National Party for Justice and the Constitutions (Waad), in Iraq the Iraqi Islamic Party (IIP), in Iraqi-Kurdistan the Kurdistan Islamic Union (KIU), and in Kuwait the Constitutional Movement. In Yemen, the Muslim Brotherhood participated in the creation of the Islah Party. In Palestine, the local Muslim Brotherhood founded HAMAS as its arm of resistance.
- 7.
Carrie R. Wickham, “The Path to Moderation: Strategy and Learning in the Formation of Egypt’s Wasat Party,” Comparative Politics 36, no. 2 (2004), https://doi.org/10.2307/4150143.
- 8.
Carrie R. Wickham, The Muslim Brotherhood: Evolution of an Islamist Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).
- 9.
Bayat, Making Islam Democratic, 6–9.
- 10.
Isabelle Werenfels, “Vom Umgang mit Islamisten im Maghreb: Zwischen Einbindung und Unterdrückung,” 39, SWP Studie (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft undPolitikGerman Institute for International and Security Affairs, December 2005), https://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/studien/2005_S39_wrf_ks.pdf.
- 11.
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- 15.
May Darwich, “Creating the Enemy, Constructing the Threat: The Diffusion of Repression against the Muslim Brotherhood in the Middle East,” Democratization 24, no. 7 (2017): 1289–306, https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2017.1307824; Philipp O. Amour, “Revolutionary Changes, Power Dynamics, and Regional Rivalries since the Arab Spring: An Introduction,” in The Middle East Reloaded: Revolutionary Changes, Power Dynamics, and Regional Rivalries since the Arab Spring, ed. Philipp O. Amour, St. James’s Studies in World Affairs (Washington: Academica Press, 2018), 1–21.
- 16.
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- 17.
Khlebnikov; Linda Berger, “The Gulf Cooperation Council between Unity and Discord towards the Arab Uprisings,” Sicherheit Und Frieden (S + F)/Security and Peace 32, no. 4 (2014): 260–64.
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Kristian Coates Ulrichsen, “Qatar and the Arab Spring: Policy Drivers and Regional Implications” (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 2014), https://carnegieendowment.org/files/qatar_arab_spring.pdf.
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- 21.
Ahmed Hanafy, Interview in Doha by Julius Dihstelhoff, January 14, 2015; Birol Usculan, Interview by Julius Dihstelhoff in Doha, January 18, 2018.
- 22.
For further insights see: Philipp O. Amour, “Hamas-PLO/Fatah Reconciliation and Rapprochement within the Unfolding Regional Order in the Middle East since 2010: Neorealist and Neoclassical Realist Perspectives,” Journal of Social Sciences of Mus Alparslan University 6, no. 5 (April 13, 2018): 621–31, https://doi.org/10.18506/anemon.384773.
- 23.
Senem Aydın-Düzgit, “The Seesaw Friendship between Turkey’s AKP and Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, July 24, 2014, http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/07/24/seesaw-friendship-between-turkey-s-akp-and-egypt-s-muslim-brotherhood-pub-56243.
- 24.
Gregory Aftandilian, The New Arab Regional Order: Opportunities and Challenges for U.S. Policy (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute and United States Army War College Press, 2015), 12–22, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1000185.pdf.
- 25.
Aydın-Düzgit, “The Seesaw Friendship between Turkey’s AKP and Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood.”
- 26.
Lawrence Rubin, Islam in the Balance: Ideational Threats in Arab Politics (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), 121–22.
- 27.
May Darwich, “The Ontological (in)Security of Similarity Wahhabism Versus Islamism in Saudi Foreign Policy,” Foreign Policy Analysis 12, no. 3 (2016): 469–88, https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orw032.
- 28.
Henner Fürtig and Annette Ranko, “Durch Die Arabische Welt Ein Riss: Im Nahen Und Mittleren Osten Verschieben Sich Die Gravitationszentren.,” Internationale Politik, no. 2 (2014): 8–14.
- 29.
Henner Fürtig, “Iran and the Arab Spring: Between Expectations and Disillusion,” GIGA Working Papers (Hamburg: German Institute for Global and Area Studies, November 2013), 11–12, https://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/system/files/publications/wp241_fuertig.pdf.
- 30.
Dina Esfandiyari, “Iran and Egypt: A Complicated Tango?,” ISS, October 18, 2012, https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/iran-and-egypt-complicated-tango.
- 31.
Abdallah Djaballah, Shar’iyyat al-Amal as-Siyasi (Beirut: Dar Al-Maarifa, 2002).
- 32.
Philipp O. Amour, “Editor’s Note: The End of the Arab Spring?,” ed. Philipp O. Amour, The Arab Spring: Comparative Perspectives and Regional Implications, Special issue, Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations 12, no. 3 (Fall 2013): I–IV.
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Reichinnek, Lübben, and Dihstelhoff, “Die Terrorliste der Emirate.”
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David Rose, “Cameron and the Arab Sheiks’ Web of Influence That Infiltrated Britain: The Shadowy Nexus of PM’s Cronies That Secretively Lobbied for Middle East Paymasters,” Daily Mail, October 18, 2015, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3277345/Cameron-Arab-Sheiks-web-influence-infiltrated-Britain-shadowy-nexus-PM-s-cronies-secretively-lobbied-Middle-East-paymasters.html.
- 39.
Nigel Morris and Ian Johnston, “Muslim Brotherhood: Government Report Concludes They Should Not Be Classified as a Terrorist Organisation,” Independent, March 15, 2015, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/muslim-brotherhood-government-report-concludes-they-should-not-be-classified-as-a-terrorist-organisation-10109730.html.
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Philipp O. Amour, “Israel, the Arab Spring, and the Unfolding Regional Order in the Middle East: A Strategic Assessment,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 44, no. 3 (July 3, 2017): 293–309, https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2016.1185696; Amour, “Revolutionary Changes, Power Dynamics,” 1–21.
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“Yemen: Is Peace Possible?,” 10–12, 22–23.
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“Yemen: Is Peace Possible?”; Jens Heibach, “Saudi Arabia‘s War in Yemen: No Exit Strategy,” GIGA Focus Middle East, May 2017, https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publication/saudi-arabias-war-in-yemen-no-exit-strategy.
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Cited in: Hedges and Cafiero, “The GCC and the Muslim Brotherhood,” 134–35.
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Both the 2013 and 2014 Riyadh agreements were leaked in July 2017 in the context of the second Qatar crisis. CNN, which originally obtained the documents, has provided copies of the original Arabic documents. “English Translation of the Agreements,” accessed July 1, 2019, http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2017/images/07/10/translation.of.agreementsupdated.pdf.
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Dihstelhoff, J., Lohse, A. (2020). Political Islam as an Ordering Factor? The Reconfiguration of the Regional Order in the Middle East Since the “Arab Spring”. In: Amour, P. (eds) The Regional Order in the Gulf Region and the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45465-4_2
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