Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Trypanosomiasis and Filariasis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neglected Diseases in Monkeys

  • 378 Accesses

Abstract

Trypanosomes and filarial nematodes are important pathogens in humans and domestic animals. However, the majority of the infections reported from nonhuman primates (NHPs) are nonpathogenic. Moreover, those hemoparasites are relatively host-specific, which means that transmission from NHPs to humans is highly unlikely with the exception of nonpathogenic Trypanosoma rangeli and Trypanosoma cruzi and the T. brucei complex, which cause Chagas disease and sleeping sickness in humans, respectively. NHPs may also act as reservoir hosts for some nonpathogenic human filarial parasites, e.g., Mansonella streptocerca. Though many studies on those hemoparasites were conducted in the last century, recent studies remain rather neglected due to the logistical, ethical, and administrative challenges associated with the collection of blood or tissue samples in wild NHPs. In this chapter, we present an overview of trypanosomes and filarial nematodes infecting NHPs with information about their distribution, biology, pathogenesis, and their zoonotic potential.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Acardi SA, Rago MV, Liotta DJ, Fernandez-Duque E, Salomon OD (2013) Leishmania (Viannia) DNA detection by PCR-RFLP and sequencing in free-ranging owl monkeys (Aotus azarai azarai) from Formosa, Argentina. Vet Parasitol 193:256–259

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashford RW (1996) Leishmaniasis reservoirs and their significance in control. Clin Dermatol 14:523–532

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bain O, Baker M, Chabaud AG (1982) New data on the Dipetalonema lineage (Filarioidea, Nematoda). Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 57:593–620

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bain O, Moisson P, Huerre M, Landsoud-Soukate J, Tutin C (1995) Filariae from a wild gorilla in Gabon with description of a new species of Mansonella. Parasite 2:315–322

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bain O, Mutafchiev Y, Junker K, Guerrero R, Martin C, Lefoulon E, Uni S (2015) Review of the genus Mansonella Faust, 1929 sensu lato (Nematoda: Onchocercidae), with descriptions of a new subgenus and a new subspecies. Zootaxa 3918:151–193

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker JR (1972) Protozoa of tissues and blood (other than the Haemosporina). In: Fiennes RNT-W (ed) Pathology of simian primates. Part II. Infections and parasitic diseases. Karger, Basel, pp 29–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Bastien P, Volf P, Depaquit J, Dondji B, Gallego M, Gangneux J-P, Izri A, Marty P, Piarroux R, Pratlong F, Dedet J-P (2015) Comments on Leishmania major in gorilla feces. J Infect Dis 212:505–506

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boussinesq M, Bain O, Chabaud AG, Gardon-Wendel N, Kamgno J, Chippaux JP (1995) A new zoonosis of the cerebrospinal fluid of man probably caused by Meningonema peruzzii, a filaria of the central nervous system of Cercopithecidae. Parasite 2:173–176

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgos-Rodriguez AG (2011) Zoonotic diseases of primates. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 14:557–575

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carcavallo RU, Franca-Rodríguez ME, Salvatella R (1998) Curto de Casas SI, Sherlock I, Gãlvao C, et al. Habitats e fauna relacionada. In: Carcavallo RU, Galíndez Girón I, Jurberg J, Lent H (eds) Atlas dos vetores da doença de Chagas nas Américas, vol II. Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, pp 561–600

    Google Scholar 

  • Chagas C (1909) Neue Trypanosomen, Vorläufige Mitt Arch Schiffs. Trop-Hy 13:120–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Chanyalew M, Hailu A (2013) Infection site dependent progression of cutaneous lesions in African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) experimentally infected with Leishmania aethiopica promastigotes. Ethiop J Sci 36:45–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Correa P, Bueno C, Soares R, Vieira FM, Muniz-Pereira LC (2016) Checklist of helminth parasites of wild primates from Brazil. Rev Mex Biodivers 87:908–918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox-Singh J, Davis TME, Lee KS, Shamsul SSG, Matusop A, Ratnam S, Rahman HA, Conway DJ, Singh B (2008) Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans is widely distributed and potentially life threatening. Clin Infect Dis 46:165–171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cross JH, Hsu MY, Hung CK (1983) Studies on trypanosomes in the Taiwan monkey. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 14:536–542

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva FM, Naiff RD, Marcili A, Gordo M, D’Affonseca-Neto JA, Naiff MF et al (2008) Infection rates and genotypes of Trypanosoma rangeli and T. cruzi infecting freeranging Saguinus bicolor (Callitrichidae), a critically endangered primate of the Amazon rainforest. Acta Trop 107:168–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva FM, Marcili A, Ortiz PA, Epiphanio S, Campaner M, Catao-Dias JL et al (2010) Phylogenetic, morphological and behavioural analyses support host switching of Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) lewisi from domestic rats to primates. Infect Genet Evol 10:522–529

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deane MP (1969) A discussion on Trypanosoma sanmartini Garnham and González-Mugaburu, 1962. Rev Latinoam Microbiol Parasitol (Mex) 11:91–96

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deane LM, Deane MP, Lourenço-de-Oliveira R (1968) Are Asian monkeys the original mammalian hosts of Trypanosoma conorhini? Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 81:127–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deane LM, Batista D, Ferreira Neto JA, de Souza H (1970) Trypanosomas of mammals of the Amazon region. V. Trypanosoma lambrechti Marimkelle, 1968, in monkeys of the state of Amazon, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 12:1–7

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dedet J (1993) Leishmania et leishmanioses du continent américain. Ann l’Institut Pasteur 4:3–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Denning HK, Karcher F (1986) Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) conorhini im Javaneraffen (Macaca fascicularis) auf den Philippinenane. Mitt Österr Ges Tropenmed Parasitol 8:153–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Desforges JF, Kirchhoff LV (1993) American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ disease) – a tropical disease now in the United States. N Engl J Med 329:639–644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duke BO (1960) Studies on loiasis in monkeys. III. The pathology of the spleen in drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus) infected with Loa. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 54:141–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duke BOL (1964) Studies on loiasis in monkeys. IV. Experimental hybridization of the human and simian strains of Loa. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 58:390–408

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duke B (2004) Failed attempts at experimental transplantation and transmission of nocturnally-periodic simian Loa from monkey to man. Filaria J 3:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2883-3-5

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn FL, Lambrecht FL (1963) On some filarial parasites of south American primates, with a description of Tetrapetalonema tamarinae n. sp. from the Peruvian tamarin marmoset, Tamarinus nigricollis (Spix, 1823). J Helminthol 37:261–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn FL, Ramachandran CP (1968) South East Asian filaroids with special reference to those normally parasitic in vertebrates other than man. In: Proceedings of the seminar on filariasis and immunology of parasitic infections and laboratory meeting, Singapore

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn FL, du Plessis R, Lambrecht FL (1963) Trypanosomes of South American monkeys and marmosets. Am J Trop Med Hyg 12:524–534

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eberhard ML (1980) Dipetalonema (Cercopithifilaria) kenyensis subgen. et sp. n. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from African baboons, Papio anubis. J Parasitol 66:551–554

    Google Scholar 

  • Eberhard ML, D’Allessandro A (1982) Congenital T. cruzi infection in a laboratory born squirrel monkey Saimiri sciureus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 31:931–933

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erkenswick GA, Watsa M, Dmytryk N, Gozalo AS, Parker P (2017) Temporal and demographic blood parasite dynamics in two free-ranging neotropical primates. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildl 6:59–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espinosa-Álvarez O, Ortiz PA, L L, Costa-Martins AG, Serrano MG, Herder S, Buck GA, Camargo EP, Hamilton PB, Stevens JR, Teixeira MMG (2018) Trypanosoma rangeli is phylogenetically closer to Old World trypanosomes than to Trypanosoma cruzi. Int J Parasitol 48:569–584

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esslinger JH, Gardiner CH (1974) Dipetalonema barbascalensis sp. n. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from the owl monkey, Aotus trivirgatus, with a consideration of the status of Parlitomosa zakii Nagaty, 1935. J Parasitol 60:1001–1005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes O, Mangia RH, Lisboa CV, Pinho P, Morel CM, Zingales B, Campbell D, Jansen M (1999) The complexity of the sylvatic cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in Rio de Janeiro state (Brazil) revealed by the non-transcribed spacer of the mini-exon gene. Parasitology 118:161–166

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia LS (2016) Diagnostic medical parasitology, 6th edn. ASM Press, Washington, DC

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gardiner CH, Nold JB, Sanders IE (1982) Diagnostic exercise. Lab Anim Sci 32:601–602

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson W (2017) Kinetoplastea. In: Archibald JM, Simpson AGB, Slamovits CH (eds) Handbook of the protists. Springer, Cham, pp 1089–1138

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Grimaldi G Jr (2008) The utility of rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and other non-human primate models for preclinical testing of Leishmania candidate vaccines. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 103:629–644

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamad I, Forestier CL, Peeters M, Delaporte E, Raoult D, Bittar F (2015) Wild gorillas as a potential reservoir of Leishmania major. J Infect Dis 211:267–273

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton PB, Stevens JR (2017) Classification and phylogeny of Trypanosoma cruzi. In: Telleria J, Tibayrenc M (eds) American trypanosomiasis Chagas disease: one hundred years of research, 2nd edn. Elsevier, London, pp 321–344

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton PB, Adams ER, Njiokou F, Gibson WC, Cuny G, Herder S (2009) Phylogenetic analysis reveals the presence of the Trypanosoma cruzi clade in African terrestrial mammals. Infect Genet Evol 9:81–86

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herder S, Simo G, Nkinin S, Njiokou F (2002) Identification of trypanosomes in wild animals from Southern Cameroon using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Parasite 9:345–349

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrer A, Christensen HA (1976) Epidemiological patterns of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Panama III. Endemic persistence of the disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25:54–58

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrer A, Christensen HA, Beumer RJ (1973) Reservoir host of cutaneous leishmaniasis among Panamanian forest mammals. Am J Trop Med Hyg 22:585–591

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoare CA (1972) The trypanosomes of mammals. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford/Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Irwin MT, Raharison JL (2009) A review of the endoparasites of the lemurs of Madagascar. Malagasy Nat 2:66–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansen AM, Xavier SC, Roque AL (2015) The multiple and complex and changeable scenarios of the Trypanosoma cruzi transmission cycle in the sylvatic environment. Acta Trop 51:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen AM, Xavier SCC, Roque ALR (2017) Ecological aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi: wild hosts and reservoirs. In: Telleria J, Tibayrenc M (eds) American trypanosomiasis Chagas disease: one hundred years of research, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 243–264

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jirků M, Votýpka J, Petrželková KJ, Jirků-Pomajbíková K, Kriegová E, Vodička R et al (2015) Wild chimpanzees are infected by Trypanosoma brucei. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildl 4:277–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasa TJ, Lathrop GD, Dupuy HJ, Bonney CH, Toft JD (1977) An endemic focus of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a subhuman primate research colony. J Am Vet Med Assoc 171:850–854

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirchhoff LV (2001) American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ disease). In: Gillespie S, Pearson RD (eds) Principles and practice of clinical parasitology. Wiley, Chichester, pp 335–353

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Klei TR, Tajan TV (eds) (2002) World class parasites, vol 5, the Filaria. Kluwer Acad Publ, Dordrecht, 182 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Laing AB, Edeson JF, Wharton RH (1960) Studies on filariasis in Malaya: the vertebrate hosts of Brugia malayi and B. pahangi. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 54:92–99

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lainson R, Shaw JJ, Braga RR, Ishikawa EAY, de Souza AA, Silveira FT (1988) Isolation of Leishmania from monkeys in the Amazon region of Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 82:231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lainson R, Braga RR, de Souza AA, Pôvoa MM, Ishikawa EA, Silveira FT (1989) Leishmania (Viannia) shawi sp. n., a parasite of monkeys, sloths and procyonids in Amazonian Brazil. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 64:200–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen PA, Hayes CE, Williams CV, Junge RE, Razafindramanana J, Mass V et al (2016) Blood transcriptomes reveal novel parasitic zoonoses circulating in Madagascar’s lemurs. Biol Lett 12(1):20150829. dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0829

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lau LI, Lee FL, Hsu WM, Pampiglione S, Fioravanti ML, Orihel TC (2002) Human subconjunctival infection of Macacanema formosana: the first case of human infection reported worldwide. Arch Ophthalmol 120:643–646

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lefoulon E, Kuzmin Y, Plantard O, Mutafchiev Y, Otranto D, Martin C, Bain O (2014) Redescription of Cercopithifilaria rugosicauda (Bohm & Supperer, 1953) (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) of roe deer, with an emended diagnosis of the genus Cercopithifilaria and a genetic characterization. Parasitol Int 63:808–816

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lefoulon E, Bain O, Bourret J, Junker K, Guerrero R, Cañizales I et al (2015) Shaking the tree: multi-locus sequence typing usurps current onchocercid (filarial nematode) phylogeny. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9(11):e0004233. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004233

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lima VM, Santiago ME, Sanches LC, Lima BD (2012) Molecular diagnosis of Leishmania amazonensis in a captive spider monkey in Bauru, Sao Paulo, Brazil. J Zoo Wildl Med 43:943–945

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lisboa CV, Dietz J, Baker AJ, Russel NN, Jansen AM (2000) Trypanosoma cruzi infection in Leontopithecus rosalia at the Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 95:445–452

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lugli EB, Pouliot M, Portela MDM, Loomis MR, Raper J (2004) Characterization of primate trypanosome lytic factors. Mol Biochem Parasitol 138:9–20

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maia da Silva F, Rodrigues AC, Campaner M, Takata CSA, Brigido MC, Junqueira ACV, Coura JR, Takeda GF, Shaw JJ, Teixeira MMG (2004) Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis of and allied species from human, monkeys and other sylvatic mammals of the Brazilian Amazon disclosed a new group and a species-specific marker. Parasitology 128(3):283–294

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malta MCC, Tinoco HP, Xavier MN, Vieira ALS, Costa ÉA, Santos RL (2010) Naturally acquired visceral leishmaniasis in non-human primates in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 169:193–197

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mapua MI, Votýpka J (2018) Detection of blood parasites in primate feces. In: Modrý D, Petrželková KJ, Kalousová B, Hasegawa H (eds) Parasites of African great apes: atlas of coproscopic diagnostics. VFU, Brno; 163 pp., ISBN: 8073057700

    Google Scholar 

  • Marinkelle CJ (1966) Observations on human, monkey and bat trypanosomes and their vectors in Colombia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 60:109–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martínez MF, Kowalewski MM, Salomón OD, Schijman AG (2016) Molecular characterization of trypanosomatid infections in wild howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in northeastern Argentina. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildl 5:198–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslov DA, Votýpka J, Yurchenko V, Lukes J (2013) Diversity and phylogeny of insect trypanosomatids: all that is hidden shall be revealed. Trends Parasitol 29:43–52

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monteiro RV, Baldez J, Dietz J, Baker A, Lisboa CV, Jansen AM (2006) Clinical, biochemical, and electrocardiographic aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in free-ranging golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia). J Med Primatol 35:48–55

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ndao M, Kelly N, Normandin D, Maclean JD, Whiteman A, Kokoskin E, Arevalo I, Ward BJ (2000) Trypanosoma cruzi infection of squirrel monkeys: comparison of blood smear examination, commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and polymerase chain reaction analysis as screening tests for evaluation of monkey-related injuries. Comp Med 50:658–665

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Njiokou F, Laveissière C, Simo G, Nkinin S, Grébaut P, Cuny G, Herder S (2006) Wild fauna as a probable animal reservoir for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Cameroon. Infect Genet Evol 6:147–153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noireau F, Gouteux JP (1989) Current considerations on a Loa loa simian reservoir in the Congo. Acta Trop 46:69–70

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nonoyama T, Sugitani T, Orita S, Miyajima H (1984) A pathological study in cynomolgus monkeys infected with Edesonfilaria malayensis. Lab Anim Sci 34:604–609

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Notarnicola J, Agustín Jiménez F, Gardner SL (2007) A new species of Dipetalonema (Filarioidea: Onchocercidae) from Ateles chamek from the Beni of Bolivia. J Parasitol 93:661–667

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orihel TC (1970) Filariasis in chimpanzees. In: Bourne GH (ed) The chimpanzee, vol 3. University Park Press, Baltimore, pp 56–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Orihel TC, Esslinger JH (1973) Meningonema peruzzii gen. et sp. n. (Nematoda Filarioidea) from the central nervous system of African monkeys. J Parasitol 59:437–441

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orihel TC, Seibold HR (1972) Nematodes of the bowel and tissues. In: Fiennes RNT-W (ed) Pathology of simian primates. Karger, Basel, pp 76–103

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer O, Mezui-Me-Ndong J, Boda C, Lamine I, Labrousse F, Bisser S, Bouteille B (2006) The vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) as an experimental model for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense human African trypanosomiasis: a clinical, biological and pathological study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100:427–436

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pays E, Vanhollebeke B, Vanhamme L, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Nolan DP, Pérez-Morga D (2006) The trypanolytic factor of human serum. Nat Rev Microbiol 4:477–486

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peel E, Chardome M (1947) Note complémentaire sur des filaridés de chimpanzés Pan paniscus et Pan satyrus au Congo belge. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 27:241–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Petit G, Bain O, Roussilhon C (1985) Deux nouvelles filaires chez un singe, Saimiri sciureus, au Guyana. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 60:65–81

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prugnolle F, Durand P, Ollomo B, Duval L, Ariey F, Arnathau C, Gonzalez J-P, Leroy E, Renaudet F (2011) A fresh look at the origin of Plasmodium falciparum, the most malignant malaria agent. PLoS Pathog 7(2):e1001283

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pung OJ, Spratt J, Clark CG, Norton TM (1998) Trypanosoma cruzi infection of free-ranging lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) and ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) on St. Catherine’s island, Georgia, USA. J Zoo Wildl Med 29:25–30

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raper J, Friedman DJ (2013) Parasitology: molecular one-upmanship. Nature 501:322–323

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reichenow E (1917) Parasites of the blood and intestine of African anthropoid apes. Madrid, Boletín de la Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural. Madrid 17:312–332

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodhain J, van den Berghe L (1939) Paraloa anthropopitheci: genre et espèce nouveaux de Filarioidea chez le chimpanzee du Congo belge. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 19:445–452

    Google Scholar 

  • Roque ALR, Jansen AM (2014) Wild and synanthropic reservoirs of Leishmania species in the Americas. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildl 3:251–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblum LA, Cooper RW (1968) The squirrel monkey. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandground J (1936) On the occurrence of a species of Loa in monkeys in the Belgian Congo. Ann Soc Belge Med Trop 16:273–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato H, Leo N, Katakai Y, Takano J, Akari H, Nakamura S, Une Y (2008) Prevalence and molecular phylogenetic characterization of Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) minasense in the peripheral blood of small Neotropical primates after a quarantine period. J Parasitol 94:1128–1138

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schad GA, Anderson RC (1963) Macacanema formosana n.g., n.sp. (Onchocercidae: Dirofilariinae) from Macaca cyclopsis of Formosa. Can J Zool 41:797–800

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seah SKK, Marsden PD, Voller A, Pettitt LE (1974) Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection in rhesus monkeys—the acute phase. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 68:63–69

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh B, Sung LK, Matusop A, Radhakrishnan A, Shamsul SSG, Cox-Singh J, Thomas A, Conway DJ (2004) A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings. Lancet 363:1017–1024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sousa OE, Rossan RN, Baerg DC (1974) The prevalence of trypanosomes and microfilariae in Panamanian monkeys. Am J Trop Med Hyg 23:862–868

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Springer A, Fichtel C, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH, Kappeler PM (2015) Hemoparasites in a wild primate: infection patterns suggest interaction of Plasmodium and Babesia in a lemur species. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildl 4:385–395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens JR, Noyes H, Gibson WC (1998) The evolution of trypanosomes infecting humans and primates. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 93:669–676

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strait K, Else JG, Eberhard ML (2012) Parasitic diseases of nonhuman primates. In: Abee CR, Mansfield K, Tardif SD, Morris T (eds) Nonhuman primates in biomedical research: diseases, vol 2. Academic, San Diego, pp 197–297

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Telleria J, Tibayrenc M (eds) (2017) American trypanosomiasis Chagas disease: one hundred years of research, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 321–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson R, Genovese G, Canon C, Kovacsics D, Higgins MK, Carrington M et al (2014) Evolution of the primate trypanolytic factor APOL1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:E2130–E2139. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1400699111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thuita JK, Kagira JM, Mwangangi D, Matovu E, Turner CMR, Masiga D (2008) Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense transmitted by a single tsetse fly bite in vervet monkeys as a model of human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2:e238. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000238

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Toft JDII (1986) The pathoparasitology of nonhuman primates: a review. In: Benirschke K (ed) Primates. The road to self-sustaining populations. Springer, New York, pp 571–679

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Toure FS, Leroy EM, Mavoungou E, Egwang TG (1999) Sequence conservation of repeat 3 region of the gene coding for the 15 kDa polyprotein within human and simian Loa loa. J Med Primatol 28:57–61

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treadgold C (1920) On a filaria, Loa papionis n. sp., parasitic in Papio cynocephalus. Parasitology 12:113–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van den Berghe L, Chardome M, Peel E (1964) The filarial parasites of the eastern gorilla in the Congo. J Helminthol 38:349–368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanderhoeven FE, Notarnicola J, Agostini I (2017) First record of Dipetalonema robini Petit, Bain & Roussilhon 1985 (Nematoda: Onchocercidae) parasitizing Sapajus nigritus in northeastern Argentina. Mastozool Neotrop 24:483–488

    Google Scholar 

  • Votýpka J, Rádrová J, Skalický T, Jirků M, Jirsová D, Mihalca AD, D’Amico G, Petrželková KJ, Modrý D, Lukeš J (2015) A tsetse and tabanid fly survey of African great apes habitats reveals the presence of a novel trypanosome lineage but the absence of Trypanosoma brucei. Int J Parasitol 45:741–748

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Votýpka J, Pafčo B, Modrý D, Mbohli D, Tagg N, Petrželková KJ (2018) An unexpected diversity of trypanosomatids in fecal samples of great apes. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildl 7:322–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webber WA (1955a) The filarial parasites of primates; a review. I. Dirofilaria and Diptelonema. Parasitology 49:123–141

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webber WAF (1955b) The filarial parasites of primates; a review. II. Loa, Protofilaria and Parlitomosa, with notes on incompletely identified adult and larval forms. Parasitology 49:235–249

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinman D (1972) Trypanosoma cyclops n. sp.: a pigmented trypanosome from the Malaysian primates Macaca nemestrina and M. ira. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 66:628–636

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinman D (1977) Trypanosomiases of man and macaques in South Asia. In: Kreier JP (ed) Parasitic Protozoa, vol 1. Academic Press, New York, pp 329–355

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinman D, White EA, Antipa GA (1984) Trypanosoma lucknowi, a new species of trypanosome from Macaca mulatta with observations on its fine structure. J Eukaryot Microbiol 31:429–433

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler RJ (2010) The trypanolytic factor-mechanism, impacts and applications. Trends Parasitol 26:457–464

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong MM, Brummer ME (1978) Cuticular morphology of five species of Dirofilaria: a scanning electron microscope study. J Parasitol 64:108–114

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziccardi M, de Oliveira LR (1997) The infection rates of trypanosomes in squirrel monkeys at two sites in the Brazilian Amazon. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 92:465–470

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziccardi M, de Oliveira LR (1999) Polymorphism in trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) minasense in the blood of experimentally infected squirrel monkey and marmosets. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 94:649–653

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziccardi M, de Oliveira RL, Alves MC, da Cruz Mde FF (2005) Trypanosoma saimirii Rodhain, a junior synonym of Trypanosoma rangeli Tejera. J Parasitol 91:653–656

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zingales B, Andrade S, Briones RS, Campbell DA, Chiari E, Fernandes O et al (2009) A new consensus for Trypanosoma cruzi intraspecific nomenclature: second revision meeting recommends TcI to TcVI. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 104:1051–1054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

    Jan Votypka & Jana Brzonova

  2. Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic

    Jan Votypka & Klara J. Petrzelkova

  3. Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic

    Klara J. Petrzelkova

Authors
  1. Jan Votypka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jana Brzonova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Klara J. Petrzelkova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan Votypka .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Workgroup Neglected Tropical Diseases, Infection Biology Unit, Deutsches Primatenzentrum GmbH, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany

    Sascha Knauf

  2. Department of Anthropology and Center for Studies in Demography and Ecology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Lisa Jones-Engel

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Votypka, J., Brzonova, J., Petrzelkova, K.J. (2020). Trypanosomiasis and Filariasis. In: Knauf, S., Jones-Engel, L. (eds) Neglected Diseases in Monkeys. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52283-4_15

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation