Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Continuum of Gender-Based Violence Across the Refugee Experience

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Understanding Gender-Based Violence

Abstract

This chapter considers refugees’ experiences of gender-based violence (GBV) across contexts of conflict, displacement, transit and resettlement. We outline various forms of GBV experienced by refugees and challenge the characterisation of GBV as an individual or series of discrete traumatic acts. Rather, GBV is often experienced as a spectrum of violations that are not static or temporally confined to conflict and transit spaces, but instead can permeate the refugee experience into resettlement, forming a continuum of violence. We explore how structural and symbolic factors shape individuals’ experiences of and responses to GBV and can be forms of gendered violence in themselves. Opportunities for social workers and healthcare professionals to effectively respond to and prevent GBV in resettlement contexts are discussed, including creating safe spaces, providing trauma-informed, culturally responsive care and promoting community-led interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 49.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 64.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC). Guidelines for integrating gender-based violence interventions in humanitarian action: reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery. 2015. https://gbvguidelines.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2015-IASC-Gender-based-Violence-Guidelines_lo-res.pdf.

  2. Ellsberg M, Jansen HA, Heise L, Watts CH, Garcia-Moreno C. Intimate partner violence and women’s physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence: an observational study. Lancet. 2008;371(9619):1165–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Keygnaert I, Vettenburg N, Temmerman M. Hidden violence is silent rape: sexual and gender-based violence in refugees, asylum seekers and undocumented migrants in Belgium and the Netherlands. Cult Health Sex. 2012;14(5):505–20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Phillimore J, Pertek S, Alidu L. Sexual and gender-based violence and refugees: the impacts of and on integration domains. 2018. (IRiS Working Paper Series). Report No.: 28/2018. p. 34.

    Google Scholar 

  5. UNHCR. Refugee population statistics database. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 2020. [cited 15 Jul 2020]. https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/.

  6. BenEzer G, Zetter R. Searching for directions: conceptual and methodological challenges in researching refugee journeys. J Refug Stud. 2015;28(3):297–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Freedman J. Sexual and gender-based violence against refugee women: a hidden aspect of the refugee “crisis”. Reprod Health Matters. 2016;24(47):18–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Manjoo R, McRaith C. Gender-based violence and justice in conflict and post-conflict areas. Cornell Int Law J. 2011;44(1):11–32.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Vaughan C, Davis E, Murdolo A, Chen J, Murray L, Quiazon R, et al. Promoting community-led responses to violence against immigrant and refugee women in metropolitan and regional Australia. The ASPIRE Project: research report. Sydney: Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety; 2016. Report No.: 07/2016.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Vaughan C, Chen J, Block K, Sullivan C, Suha M, Sandhu M, et al. Multicultural and settlement services Supporting women experiencing violence. Sydney: ANROWS; 2020. p. 112. (Research report). Report No.: 11/2020.

    Google Scholar 

  11. UNHCR. Sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) prevention and response—UNHCR emergency handbook. 4th ed. Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; 2020. [cited 17 Jun 2020]. https://emergency.unhcr.org/entry/60283/sexual-and-gender-based-violence-sgbv-prevention-and-response.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Ward J, Vann B. Gender-based violence in refugee settings. Lancet. 2002;360:s13–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Moore MW, Barner JR. Sexual minorities in conflict zones: a review of the literature. Aggress Violent Behav. 2017;35:33–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Ozcurumez S, Akyuz S, Bradby H. The conceptualization problem in research and responses to sexual and gender-based violence in forced migration. J Gend Stud. 2020;21:1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Linos N. Rethinking gender-based violence during war: is violence against civilian men a problem worth addressing? Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(8):1548–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Carpenter RC. Recognizing gender-based violence against civilian men and boys in conflict situations. Secur Dialogue. 2006;37(1):83–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Crenshaw K. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Rev. 1991;43(6):1241–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Ozcurumez S, Bradby H, Akyuz S. What is the nature of SGBV? Birmingham: University of Birmingham; 2019. p. 33. Report No.: 27/2019.

    Google Scholar 

  19. UNHCR. Action against sexual and gender-based violence: an updated strategy. Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  20. De Schrijver L, Vander Beken T, Krahé B, Keygnaert I. Prevalence of sexual violence in migrants, applicants for international protection, and refugees in Europe: a critical interpretive synthesis of the evidence. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(9):1979.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Vu A, Adam A, Wirtz A, Pham K, Rubenstein L, Glass N, et al. The prevalence of sexual violence among female refugees in complex humanitarian emergencies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Curr. 2014;6. [cited 22 Jul 2020]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4012695/.

  22. Ward J. If not now, when? Addressing gender-based violence in refugee, internally displaced, and post-conflict settings: a global overview. New York: Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Anani G. Dimensions of gender-based violence against Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Forced Migr Rev. 2013;44:75.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Sami S, Williams HA, Krause S, Onyango MA, Burton A, Tomczyk B. Responding to the Syrian crisis: the needs of women and girls. Lancet. 2014;383(9923):1179–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. UN Women. ‘We just keep silent’: gender-based violence amongst Syrian refugees in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Kurdistan Region: UN Women; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Bartolomei L, Eckert R, Pittaway E. “What happens there ... follows us here”: resettled but still at risk: refugee women and girls in Australia. Refuge Can J Refug. 2014;30(2):45–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Mandic D. Trafficking and Syrian refugee smuggling: evidence from the Balkan route. Soc Incl Lisbon. 2017;5(2):28–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Annan J, Brier M. The risk of return: intimate partner violence in Northern Uganda’s armed conflict. Soc Sci Med. 2010;70(1):152–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Gupta J, Acevedo-Garcia D, Hemenway D, Decker MR, Raj A, Silverman JG. Premigration exposure to political violence and perpetration of intimate partner violence among immigrant men in Boston. Am J Public Health. 2009;3:462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Carswell K, Blackburn P, Barker C. The relationship between trauma, post-migration problems and the psychological well-being of refugees and asylum seekers. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2009;57(2):107–19. [cited 22 Jul 2020]. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0020764009105699.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Wachter K, Gulbas LE. Social support under siege: an analysis of forced migration among women from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Soc Sci Med. 2018;208:107–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Sideris T. War, gender and culture: Mozambican women refugees. Soc Sci Med. 2003;56(4):713–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Wirtz AL, Pham K, Glass N, Loochkartt S, Kidane T, Cuspoca D, et al. Gender-based violence in conflict and displacement: qualitative findings from displaced women in Colombia. Confl Health. 2014;8(1):10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Krause U. A continuum of violence? Linking sexual and gender-based violence during conflict, flight, and encampment. Refug Surv Q. 2015;34(4):1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Salter M. Multi-perpetrator domestic violence. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2014;15(2):102–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. UNFPA. New study finds child marriage rising among most vulnerable Syrian refugees. United Nations Population Fund. 2017. [cited 24 Aug 2020]. https://www.unfpa.org/news/new-study-finds-child-marriage-rising-among-most-vulnerable-syrian-refugees.

  37. Gill A, Anitha S, editors. Forced marriage: introducing a social justice and human rights perspective. London: Zed Books Ltd.; 2012. 142 p.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Gill A, Engeland AV. Criminalization or ‘multiculturalism without culture’? Comparing British and French approaches to tackling forced marriage. J Soc Welf Fam Law. 2014;36(3):241–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Heise L. Violence against women: an integrated, ecological framework. Violence Women. 1998;4(3):262–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Jones C. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a Gardner’s tale. Am J Public Health. 2000;90(8):121–5.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Galtung J. Cultural violence. J Peace Res. 1990;27(3):291–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Sokoloff N, Dupont I. Domestic violence at the intersections of race, class, and gender—challenges and contributions to understanding violence against marginalized women in diverse communities. Violence Women. 2005;11(1):38–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Day AS, Gill AK. Applying intersectionality to partnerships between women’s organizations and the criminal justice system in relation to domestic violence. Br J Criminol. 2020;60(4):830–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Holiday YS. Refugees and the misuse of the criminal law. In: Kogovšek Šalamon N, editor. Causes and consequences of migrant criminalization. Cham: Springer; 2020. p. 193–212. . [cited 24 Jul 2020]. (Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43732-9_10.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  45. INCITE! Statement on gender violence and the prison industrial complex. INCITE!; 2001. [cited 24 Jul 2020]. https://incite-national.org/incite-critical-resistance-statement/.

  46. Lewig K, Arney F, Salveron M. Challenges to parenting in a new culture: implications for child and family welfare. Eval Program Plann. 2010;33(3):324–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Losoncz I. Building safety around children in families from refugee backgrounds: ensuring children’s safety requires working in partnership with families and communities. Child Abuse Negl. 2016;51:416–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Losoncz I. Institutional disrespect: South Sudanese experiences of the structural marginalisation of refugee migrants in Australia. 2019. [cited 20 Oct 2019]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7717-4.

  49. Mehrotra GR, Kimball E, Wahab S. The braid that binds us: the impact of neoliberalism, criminalization, and professionalization on domestic violence work. Affilia. 2016;31(2):153–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Pickering S. The new criminals: refugees and asylum seekers. In: Anthony T, Cunneen C, editors. The critical criminology companion. Leichhardt: Hawkins Press; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Block K, Nasr H, Vaughan C, Sullivan C, Alsaraf S. What responses, approaches to treatment, and other supports are effective in assisting refugees who have experienced sexual and gender-based violence? Birmingham: Institute for Research into Superdiversity; 2018. (IRiS Working Paper Series). Report No.: 30/2019.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Glass N, Perrin N, Marsh M, Clough A, Desgroppes A, Kaburu F, et al. Effectiveness of the Communities Care programme on change in social norms associated with gender-based violence (GBV) with residents in intervention compared with control districts in Mogadishu, Somalia. BMJ Open. 2019;9(3):e023819.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Marsh M, Purdin S, Navani S. Addressing sexual violence in humanitarian emergencies. Glob Public Health. 2006;1(2):133–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Noble E, Ward L, French S, Falb K. State of the evidence: a systematic review of approaches to reduce gender-based violence and support the empowerment of adolescent girls in humanitarian settings. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2019;20(3):428–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Schopper D. Responding to the needs of survivors of sexual violence: do we know what works? Int Rev Red Cross. 2014;96(894):585–600.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Wirtz AL, Glass N, Pham K, Perrin N, Rubenstein LS, Singh S, et al. Comprehensive development and testing of the ASIST-GBV, a screening tool for responding to gender-based violence among women in humanitarian settings. Confl Health. 2016;10(1):7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Kulwicki A, Aswad B, Carmona T, Ballout S. Barriers in the utilization of domestic violence services among Arab immigrant women: perceptions of professionals, service providers & community leaders. J Fam Violence. 2010;25(8):727–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Raj A, Silverman J. Violence against immigrant women: the roles of culture, context, and legal immigrant status on intimate partner violence. Violence Women. 2002;8(3):367–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Rees S, Pease B. Refugee settlement, safety and wellbeing: exploring domestic and family violence in refugee communities. Victoria: Immigrant Women’s Domestic Violence Service; 2006. Report No.: 4.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Critelli F, Yalim AC. Improving access to domestic violence services for women of immigrant and refugee status: a trauma-informed perspective. J Ethn Cult Divers Soc Work. 2020;29(1–3):95–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Larchanché S. Intangible obstacles: health implications of stigmatization, structural violence, and fear among undocumented immigrants in France. Soc Sci Med. 2012;74(6):858–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Mason G, Pulvirenti M. Former refugees and community resilience: ‘papering over’ domestic violence. Br J Criminol. 2013;53(3):401–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Segrave M. Temporary migration and family violence an analysis of victimisation, vulnerability and support. Melbourne: School of Social Sciences, Monash University; 2017. [cited 27 Aug 2019]. http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/gender-and-family-violence/temporary-migration-and-fv.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Voolma H. ‘I must be silent because of residency’: barriers to escaping domestic violence in the context of insecure immigration status in England and Sweden. Violence Women. 2018;24(15):1830–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Taylor D. Charities referring rough sleepers to immigration enforcement teams. The Guardian. 2017. [cited 30 Jul 2020]. http://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/mar/07/charities-giving-home-office-details-of-rough-sleepers-says-report.

  66. Segrave M. How the federal government is migrating responsibility. Monash Lens. 2019. [cited 30 Jul 2020]. https://lens.monash.edu/@politics-society/2019/11/11/1377635?slug=how-australias-migration-system-is-failing-victims-of-gendered-violence.

  67. Thomas S, Darkal H, Goodson L. Monitoring and reporting incidents of sexual and gender-based violence across the refugee journey. Birmingham: Institute for Research into Superdiversity; 2019. p. 31. Report No.: 29/2019.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Lee SK, Sulaiman-Hill CMR, Thompson SC. Providing health information for culturally and linguistically diverse women: priorities and preferences of new migrants and refugees. Health Promot J Austr. 2013;24(2):98–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Almoshmosh N, Jefee Bahloul H, Barkil-Oteo A, Hassan G, Kirmayer LJ. Mental health of resettled Syrian refugees: a practical cross-cultural guide for practitioners. J Ment Health Train Educ Pract. 2019;15(1):20–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Ostrander J, Melville A, Berthold SM. Working with refugees in the U.S.: trauma-informed and structurally competent social work approaches. Adv Soc Work. 2017;18(1):66–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Bhuyan R, Senturia K. Understanding domestic violence resource utilization and survivor solutions among immigrant and refugee women: introduction to the special issue. J Interpers Violence. 2005;20(8):895–901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Snowden L, Masland M, Ma Y, Ciemens E. Strategies to improve minority access to public mental health services in California: description and preliminary evaluation. J Community Psychol. 2006;34(2):225–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Atlani L, Rousseau C. The politics of culture in humanitarian aid to women refugees who have experienced sexual violence. Transcult Psychiatry. 2000;37(3):435–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Burman E, Smailes SL, Chantler K. Culture as a barrier to service provision and delivery: domestic violence services for minoritized women. Crit Soc Policy. 2004;3:332–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. James K. Domestic violence within refugee families: intersecting patriarchal culture and the refugee experience. Aust N Z J Fam Ther. 2010;31(3):275–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Health Equity, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia

    Claire Sullivan, Karen Block & Cathy Vaughan

Authors
  1. Claire Sullivan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karen Block
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cathy Vaughan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claire Sullivan .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

    Caroline Bradbury-Jones

  2. Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

    Louise Isham

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Sullivan, C., Block, K., Vaughan, C. (2021). The Continuum of Gender-Based Violence Across the Refugee Experience. In: Bradbury-Jones, C., Isham, L. (eds) Understanding Gender-Based Violence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65006-3_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65006-3_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-65005-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-65006-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation