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Presents and Passports: Friendship and the Formation of Revolutionary Networks

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Revolutionary Domesticity in the Italian Risorgimento

Part of the book series: Italian and Italian American Studies ((IIAS))

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Abstract

This chapter reveals how Mazzinian women used their traditional domestic, nurturing, and maternal behaviors and identities, as well as the privileges of their British status, to participate in revolution. The first section reveals how they used practices like gift-giving and care for children to develop and maintain the emotional bonds and alternative families vital to developing political loyalty and planning revolutionary conspiracies. The second section shows how these women operated in the revolutionary networks of the left, focusing on Jessie White Mario’s participation in the Pisacane expedition of 1857 and on Sara Nathan’s involvement in the planning and execution of various Mazzinian endeavors during the 1860s. Throughout, the chapter shows how these women took what were considered weaknesses and traits for which they would be discounted as potential revolutionaries, including their consumerism, emotions, children, and seemingly apolitical status, and made them strengths.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Victoria De Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes; Sheryl Kroen, “A Political History of the Consumer,” The Historical Journal 47, no. 3 (September 2004): 709–36; Krista Lysack, Come Buy, Come Buy: Shopping and the Culture of Consumption in Victorian Women’s Writing (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008).

  2. 2.

    Vickery, Women, Privilege, and Power, 22.

  3. 3.

    Kroen, “A Political History of the Consumer,” 719.

  4. 4.

    Marcel Mauss, The gift: the form and reason for exchange in archaic societies (New York: Norton, 1990).

  5. 5.

    Jill Rappoport, Giving Women: Alliance and Exchange in Victorian Culture (Oxford ; New York ; Oxford University Press, 2012), 4–5.

  6. 6.

    Linda White Villari, “Political Refugees in London,” The Leisure Hour 43 (1894): 93.

  7. 7.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie A. Hawkes, 10–12 March 1855, Letter 3201 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti editi ed inediti di Giuseppe Mazzini, vol. 54 (1930), 103.

  8. 8.

    Julia Salis Schwabe to Giuseppe Garibaldi, 31 January 1863, MCRR, Busta 890, N. 43(9); Giuseppe Garibaldi to Julia Salis Schwabe, 20 January 1862, MCRR, Busta 890, N. 40(2).

  9. 9.

    Tiziana Olivari, ed., La biblioteca di Garibaldi a Caprera (Milano, Italy: FrancoAngeli, 2014), 21–28. Other women who sent books include Esperance von Schwartz, Emma Roberts, Louise Colet, and Dora d’Istria. These women sent Garibaldi books they believed would interest him as well as their own works, revealing a willingness to engage in self-promotion.

  10. 10.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 13 January 1854, Letter 3788 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 50 (1928), 222.

  11. 11.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 22 January 1858, Letter 4940 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 60 (1931), 248.

  12. 12.

    Carl Ipsen, Fumo: Italy’s with Love Affair the Cigarette (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2016).

  13. 13.

    Jessie White Mario, The Birth of Modern Italy: Posthumous Papers of Jessie White Mario, ed. Litta-Visconti-Arese (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1909), 93; Mazzini complained of Saffi wanting to smoke cigarettes in his room in a letter to Matilda Biggs in April of 1858, Giuseppe Mazzini to Matilda Biggs, April 1858, Letter 5016 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 61 (1932).

  14. 14.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Giuseppe Nathan, 29 November 1866, Letter 8313 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 83 (1940), 294.

  15. 15.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, April 1852, Letter 3290 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 47 (1927), 234.

  16. 16.

    Curàtulo, Garibaldi e le donne, 35.

  17. 17.

    Writing to fellow patriot Federico Bellazzi, she explained that “You will render me an additional kind service if you would ascertain which of the two agricultural papers I addressed to the General he finds most useful, I shall like to arrange that there be weekly one sent to him from England, but I wish to know whether he prefers ‘Bells Weekly newspaper or the Gardeners Chronicle Agricultural Gazette’.” Julia Salis Schwabe to Federico Bellazzi, 27 March 1863, MCRR, Busta 254, N. 100(4).

  18. 18.

    Amarena, Donne mazziniane, donne repubblicane.

  19. 19.

    Alberto Mario Banti, La nazione del Risorgimento: parentela, santità e onore alle origini dell’Italia unita, 225 (Torino: G. Einaudi, 2000); Alberto Mario Banti, L’onore della nazione: identità sessuali e violenza nel nazionalismo europeo dal XVIII secolo alla grande guerra (Torino: Einaudi, 2005); Laura Guidi, Vivere la guerra: percorsi biografici e ruoli di genere tra Risorgimento e primo conflitto mondiale (Napoli: ClioPress, 2007); Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall, The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-Century Italy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

  20. 20.

    Marjan Schwegman, “In Love with Garibaldi: Romancing the Italian Risorgimento,” European Review of History 12, no. 2 (July 2005): 383–401.

  21. 21.

    Scaramuzza, Politica e amicizia; Porciani, Famiglia e nazione nel lungo ottocento italiano.

  22. 22.

    Mazzatinti, Lettere di Giuseppe Mazzini ad Aurelio Saffi e alla famiglia Craufurd (1850–1872); Mazzatinti, Mazzini’s Letters to an English Family; Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996); Sarti, Mazzini: A Life for the Religion of Politics; Isabella, Risorgimento in Exile: Italian Emigres and the Liberal International in the Post-Napoleonic Era; Giuseppe Mazzini et al., Dear Kate: lettere inedite di Giuseppe Mazzini a Katherine Hill, Angelo Bezzi e altri italiani a Londra (1841–1871) (Soveria Mannelli (Catanzaro): Rubbettino, 2011); Ros Pesman, “Mazzini in esilio e le inglesi,” in Famiglia e nazione nel lungo ottocento italiano: modelli, strategie, reti di relazioni, ed. Ilaria Porciani (Roma: Viella, 2011); Sutcliffe, Victorian Radicals and Italian Democrats.

  23. 23.

    Falchi, “Beyond National Borders; ‘Italian’ Patriots United in the Name of Giuseppe Mazzini: Emilie Ashurst, Margaret Fuller and Jessie White Mario.”

  24. 24.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Jessie White Mario, 16 April 1863, Letter 7046 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 74 (1937), 348–50.

  25. 25.

    D’Amelia, La Mamma; Marina D’Amelia, “Between Two Eras: Challenges Facing Women in the Risorgimento,” in The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-Century Italy, ed. Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 115–33.

  26. 26.

    For more on the importance of family to the Ashursts’ political activity see: Allison Scardino Belzer, “Three Generations of Unconventional Family Values: A Case Study of the Ashursts,” Journal of Victorian Culture 20, no. 1 (2015): 1–19.

  27. 27.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Maurizio Quadrio, 21 November 1863, Letter 7172; Giuseppe Mazzini to Matilda Biggs, November 1863, Letter 7174; Giuseppe Mazzini to Caterina Pistrucci, November 1863, Letter 7180 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 76 (1938), 205, 207–8, 217.

  28. 28.

    Giorgina Saffi to Agostino Bertani, 4 June 1869, MCRR, Busta 433, N. 15(1); Giorgina Saffi to Agostino Bertani 4 September 1869, MCRR, Busta 433, N. 15(2); Sara Nathan to Agostino Bertani, 16 December 1868, MCRR, Busta 438, N. 30(1); Sara Nathan to Agostino Bertani, 18 December 1868, MCRR, Busta 438, N. 30(2).

  29. 29.

    Jessie White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario. Memorie,” in Scritti letterari e artistici di Alberto Mario, by Giosuè Carducci (Bologna: Nichola Zanichelli, 1901), clxxi.

  30. 30.

    G. Garibaldi to Jessie Meriton White, Letter 849, 6 April 1856 in Giuseppe Garibaldi, Epistolario di Giuseppe Garibaldi, ed. Giancarlo Giordano, Vol. III (Roma: Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1981), 130; White Mario, The Birth of Modern Italy, 253.

  31. 31.

    Anderson, Joyous Greetings: The First International Women’s Movement, 1830–1860, 201.

  32. 32.

    White Mario to G. Garibaldi, 23 August 1856, MRM, Fondo Giuseppe Garibaldi-Curatulo, 665.

  33. 33.

    G. Garibaldi to Jessie Meriton White, Letter 880, 7 November 1856; G. Garibaldi to Jessie Meriton White, Letter 886, 11 February 1857 in Garibaldi, Epistolario di Giuseppe Garibaldi, 1981, Vol. III:149, 153.

  34. 34.

    G. Garibaldi to Jessie White Mario, Letter 1153, 1 August 1859, in Giuseppe Garibaldi, Epistolario di Giuseppe Garibaldi, ed. Massimo De Leonardis, Vol. IV (Roma: Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1982), 107.

  35. 35.

    “Garibaldi at Portsmouth,” The Standard (London, England), Monday, April 11, 1864; pg. 3; Issue 12377.

  36. 36.

    G. Garibaldi to Alberto Mario, Letter 4176, 27 February 1866 in Giuseppe Garibaldi, Epistolario di Giuseppe Garibaldi, ed. Giuseppe Monsagrati, Vol. X (Roma: Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1997), 162.

  37. 37.

    G. Garibaldi to Emma Chambers, Letter 5792, 24 August 1869 in Epistolario di Giuseppe Garibaldi, Vol. XIII, 1868–1869, 255. Garibaldi wrote, “Sono dolentissimo della disgrazia successa alla cara Baby, a cui darete per me un bacio siccome a Mary e Mannie.”

  38. 38.

    Isabella Fyvie Mayo, Recollections of What I Saw, What I Lived Through, and What I Learned, During More Than Fifty Years of Social and Literary Experience (London: John Murray, 1910), 178.

  39. 39.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to John McAdam, 14 April 1868, in Giuseppe Mazzini, Nel segno della democrazia: lettere inedite agli amici di Scozia e d’Inghilterra, 2 (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2011), 298.

  40. 40.

    Menotti Garibaldi to Mary Chambers, 2 March 1863, ACS, Fondo Chambers, Busta 1, Fasc. 2, S. Fasc. 1, Ins. 1.

  41. 41.

    Giuseppe Garibaldi to Mary Chambers, 19 August 1874, ACS, Fondo Chambers, Busta 1, Fasc. 1, S. Fasc. 10, Ins. 11. For more on Garibaldi’s relationships with Raimondi and Armosino, please see Chap. 7.

  42. 42.

    J. Schwabe to G. Garibaldi, 12 May 1864, MRM, Fondo Giuseppe Garibaldi-Curatulo, 2273.

  43. 43.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Giuseppe Nathan, 31 December 1866, Letter 8340 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 84 (1940), 145.

  44. 44.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 20 June 1869, Letter 8929 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 88 (1940), 67–68.

  45. 45.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie Hawkes, 16 October 1857, Letter 4823 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 57 (1931).

  46. 46.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie Hawkes, 21 November 1857, Letter 4873 and Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie Hawkes, 27 November 1857, Letter 4879 in Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 57 (1931).

  47. 47.

    Sara Nathan, “Una Proposta,” Libertà e Associazione, Sunday February 27, 1876, a.4, n.9, p.5.

  48. 48.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Giovanni Acerbi, 4 November 1852, Letter 3386 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 48 (1927).

  49. 49.

    Isastia, Storia Di Una Famiglia Del Risorgimento, 29–30.

  50. 50.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Meyer Nathan, 1858, Letter 5279 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, Vol. 62 (1933).

  51. 51.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to David Nathan, 1858, Letter 5283 in Mazzini.

  52. 52.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Filippo Bettini, 2 October 1859, Letter 5474 in Mazzini.

  53. 53.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to James Stansfeld, 9 March 1853, Letter 3515 in Mazzini, Scritti, 1927, 47:341–42.

  54. 54.

    “Insult to Englishmen in Italy,” Liverpool Mercury etc (Liverpool, England), Thursday, February 11, 1864; Issue 4995.

  55. 55.

    White Mario’s work as a lecturer will be discussed in greater detail in Chap. 4.

  56. 56.

    Daniels, Jessie White Mario, 56–57.

  57. 57.

    White Mario, The Birth of Modern Italy, 266.

  58. 58.

    Noel Blakiston, Inglesi e italiani nel Risorgimento (Catania: Bonanno Editore, 1973), 39.

  59. 59.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie Ashurst, 4 June 1857 in Mazzini’s Letters to an English Family, 1855–1860 (London: John Lane, 1922), 78.

  60. 60.

    “Cronaca contemporanea: Stati Sardi (nostra corrispondenza),” La Civiltà Cattolica, 13 June 1857 (Rome) ser.03, v.06, p. 744. They also wrote about her arrest. “Stati Sardi: la congiura di Genova,” La Civiltà Cattolica, 13 June 1857 (Rome) ser.03, v.06, p. 362.

  61. 61.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” xlvii.

  62. 62.

    Like many of Mazzini’s allies, Serafini would later become quite active as a feminist. In 1873, she published a pamphlet, Matrimonio e divorzio, which was, “the only known work by an Italian woman dedicated to the subject of divorce published between unification and 1900.” Seymour, Debating Divorce in Italy, 27.

  63. 63.

    Evelina Rinaldi, Maurizio Quadrio nelle lettere ad Elena Casati (Roma: La Libreria dello Stato, 1936).

  64. 64.

    Elena Bacchin, “Felice Orsini and the Construction of the Pro-Italian Narrative in Britain,” in Britain, Ireland and the Italian Risorgimento, by Nick Carter (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 86.

  65. 65.

    Blakiston, Inglesi e italiani nel Risorgimento, 39.

  66. 66.

    White Mario, The Birth of Modern Italy, 267–68.

  67. 67.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” l.

  68. 68.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie Ashurst, 18 May 1857 in Mazzini’s Letters to an English Family, 1855–1860, 74–75.

  69. 69.

    Mazzini to Jessie Meriton White, June 1857, Letter 4783 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, vol. 58 (1931), 207.

  70. 70.

    Jessie Meriton White Mario, “The Neapolitan State Trials,” The Times (London, England) Saturday January 23rd 1858, p. 7.

  71. 71.

    Wright, Great Britain and the Unifying of Italy, 44. According to Wright, “The Conservative foreign secretary Lord Malmesbury was left to demand that the Bourbon regime pay the men an indemnity of £3000; he succeeded in persuading the Neapolitan government to compensate the two men only after threatening to resort to gunboat diplomacy.” This reveals the extreme extent to which the British state would act to protect and defend its subjects abroad.

  72. 72.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” lvi.

  73. 73.

    Sarti, Mazzini: A Life for the Religion of Politics, 177.

  74. 74.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” xlviii.

  75. 75.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” lviii.

  76. 76.

    Jessie White Mario, In Memoria di Giovanni Nicotera (Firenze: G. Barbèra, 1894), v.

  77. 77.

    Duggan, Force of Destiny, 196–97.

  78. 78.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” liv.

  79. 79.

    White Mario, lv.

  80. 80.

    Blakiston, Inglesi e italiani nel Risorgimento, 39–42.

  81. 81.

    Daniels, Jessie White Mario, 64.

  82. 82.

    White Mario, The Birth of Modern Italy, 272–73. White claimed that Brown and Hudson “were therefore willing to help Cavour in his attempt to have me proved insane, in which case no trial would be needed, insanity arguing irresponsible guilt; but my counsel, the ever-watchful and devoted Carcassi, got hold of the plot, and, by an article in the Italia del Popolo , warned the doctors, who were induced to lend themselves to the ‘pious fraud’ in the honest belief that a certificate of insanity would save me from the galleys.”

  83. 83.

    “Miss Jessie Meriton White,” The Standard (London, England), Wednesday, December 02, 1857; pg. 6; Issue 10389.

  84. 84.

    “Miss Jessie Meriton White.”

  85. 85.

    William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour, vol. I (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911), 460.

  86. 86.

    White Mario, “Della vita di Alberto Mario,” lix–lxi.

  87. 87.

    White Mario, xlvii.

  88. 88.

    White Mario, In Memoria di Giovanni Nicotera, v–vi.

  89. 89.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to James Stansfeld, November 24, 1850, Letter 4044 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, vol. 44 (1926), 320; Nadia Ciani, Da Mazzini al Campidoglio: Vita di Ernesto Nathan (Roma: Ediesse, 2007), 44–46.

  90. 90.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Peter Taylor, 11 April 1869, Letter 8878 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, vol. 87 (1940), 314.

  91. 91.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 13 March 1863, Letter 6892; Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, April 1863, Letter 6958; Giuseppe Mazzini to Filippo Bettini, 6 May 1863, Letter 6961 in Mazzini, Scritti, 1937, 74:99, 183, 192.

  92. 92.

    Isastia, Storia di una famiglia del Risorgimento, 18.

  93. 93.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 8 November 1863, Letter 7157 in Mazzini, Scritti, 1938, 76:180.

  94. 94.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 1 November 1864, Letter 7573 in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, vol. 79 (1938), 175–76.

  95. 95.

    Isastia, Storia di una famiglia del Risorgimento, 10–12.

  96. 96.

    Isastia, 31.

  97. 97.

    “Sara Nathan,” La lega della democrazia (Roma), a.III, n.52, February 21, 1882, p.3.

  98. 98.

    Jessie White Mario, “Sara Nathan,” La lega della democrazia (Roma), a.III, n.53–54, February 23, 1882, p.2.

  99. 99.

    “Svizzera (Nostra Corrispondenza), 4. La banda Nathan,” La Civiltà Cattolica, 30 July 1870, Serie VII, Vol. XI, fasc. 489, p. 382.

  100. 100.

    “Cose Italiane: 2. Morte di G. Mazzini,” La Civiltà Cattolica, Serie VIII, Vol. VI, fasc. 525, April 26, 1872, p. 360.

  101. 101.

    Cronaca della guerra d’Italia. 1862-1863-1864, vol. 6 (Rieti: Tipografia Tringhi, 1865), 323.

  102. 102.

    This is not to be confused with the attempt on Napoleon III in 1863 which Esperance von Schwartz accused Nathan of participating in. In 1863, Sara Nathan visited Caprera to meet with Garibaldi on Mazzini’s behalf, likely to help plan an insurrection in Italy. Esperance von Schwartz, however, accused Nathan of trying to gain Garibaldi’s support in a plan to assassinate Napoleon III during this visit. It is unlikely that Schwartz’s version of the story is true and many people at the time found her writing full of exaggerations and sometimes outright lies. Historian Anna Maria Isastia, an expert on the Nathan family, doubts von Schwartz’s story because of the repeated references to Nathan’s beauty and wonders if the accusations stemmed from jealousy on von Schwartz’s side. Curàtulo, Garibaldi e le Donne, 129–33; Isastia, Storia di una famiglia del Risorgimento, 37–38, 41.

  103. 103.

    “The Trial of the Italian Conspirators,” Daily News (London, England), Monday, February 29, 1864; Issue 5557.

  104. 104.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Matilda Biggs, July 1864, Letter 7483, in Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti, vol. 78 (1938), 6.

  105. 105.

    Isastia, Storia di una famiglia del Risorgimento, 46. David Nathan was born in 1839, making him likely about 27 at this time.

  106. 106.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Vincenzo Brusco Onnis, September 1866, Letter 8263; Giuseppe Mazzini to Giovanni Grilenzoni, September 1866, Letter 8267; Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie A. Venturi, 11 October 1866, Letter 8272; Giuseppe Mazzini to Sara Nathan, 19 November 1866, Letter 8304 in Mazzini, Scritti, 1940, 84:41, 44, 53, 107.

  107. 107.

    Isastia, Storia di una famiglia del Risorgimento, 46.

  108. 108.

    Giuseppe Nathan to Clementia Taylor, 23 August 1869, Letter 8978 in Mazzini, Scritti, 1940, 88:143.

  109. 109.

    “A Case for Investigation,” Liverpool Mercury etc (Liverpool, England), Friday, October 8, 1869; Issue 6772.

  110. 110.

    “A Case for Investigation.” Manchester Times (Manchester, England), Saturday, October 9, 1869; Issue 619. The plea was also repeated in the Bristol Mercury. “A Case for Investigation,” The Bristol Mercury (Bristol, England), Saturday, October 9, 1869; Issue 4148.

  111. 111.

    Wright, Great Britain and the Unifying of Italy, 180.

  112. 112.

    Wright, 180.

  113. 113.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Emilie A. Venturi, 19 December 1869, Letter 9050 in Mazzini, Scritti, 1940, 88:276.

  114. 114.

    Mazzini, 88:276.

  115. 115.

    “Italy. The Mazzinian Conspiracy,” The Standard (London, England), Friday, April 30, 1869; pg. 5; Issue 13959.

  116. 116.

    Giuseppe Mazzini to Caroline Stansfeld, 6 June 1869 in Mazzini’s Letters to an English Family, 1861–1872 (London: John Lane, 1922), 210–11.

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    Diana Moore

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Moore, D. (2021). Presents and Passports: Friendship and the Formation of Revolutionary Networks. In: Revolutionary Domesticity in the Italian Risorgimento. Italian and Italian American Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75545-4_2

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