Abstract
Numerical cognition is an essential component of our daily life. It is the ability to process numerical quantities. In language, symbolic representations of numerical quantities are encoded by numerals. In situations of language contact, numerals are often borrowed from one language into another (Haspelmath & Tadmor, Loanwords in the world’s languages: A comparative handbook. De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin, 2009), and it has been observed that high and more abstract numerals are more prone to borrowing than lower numerals (Matras, Yaron, Language contact (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009: 202). Linguists mainly explain the higher borrowability of high numerals in sociocultural terms, for example, because of “their association with formal contexts of use” and “through intensification of economic activity” (Matras, Yaron, Language contact (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009: 200). We propose an alternative explanation, informed by cognitive science, showing that low numerals are more resistant to borrowing than high numerals because they are more deeply anchored in cognition.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
In non-human animals, the ANS has been found consistently in trained animals, from apes to bees, but also in numerous vertebrate species (cf. Nieder, 2020 and references therein).
- 3.
It is worth noticing that there is no consensus on the phylogenic origins of the mental number line. Some scholars have argued that the left-right-oriented continuum is innate, as its signature has been found in several studies of pre-verbal infants and non-human animals (e.g., Rugani et al., 2015; Rugani & Regolin, 2020). Other authors have challenged this view, claiming that the direction of this mental mapping is modulated by one’s cultural experience (e.g., Pitt et al., 2021). This debate, however, is beyond the scope of the present article. What is important to stress here is that, even if the direction of the association between numbers and space may vary as a function of exposure to culture and could depend on the direction of writing (so that the SNARC effect can be weakened or reversed in right-to-left writing systems; e.g., Dehaene et al., 1993), the SNARC effect “reflects the automatic activation of quantity information in the subject’s brain” (Dehaene, 2011:81).
- 4.
The algorithm tests the association of each independent variable with the dependent variable and chooses the independent variable with the strongest association. On this basis, it parts the dataset in two subsets. The algorithm recursively repeats this sequence (i.e. choosing the best association and further splitting the dataset) until no variables can be associated with the outcome. The results are plotted as a tree structure. A random forest can be grown from many conditional trees and returns the importance measure of each independent variable averaged over many conditional trees.
- 5.
C is an index of the goodness of fit of the model. A C greater than 0.8 indicates that the model discriminates well.
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Appendix 1
Appendix 1
1.1 Numerals: One–Four (Part A)
Languages | Numerals | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | One | B vs I | Two | B vs I | Three | B vs I | Four | B vs I |
Europe and Asia | Austroasiatic | Ceq Wong | nɑ̃y | ber | pɛt | pɑn | ||||
Europe and Asia | Austroasiatic, Munda | Bondo | mujũ | mbaru | iʔŋge | uʔu | ||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, West Chadic | Hausa | ɗáyá | bíyú | B, SL Benue-Congo languages | úkù | húɗú | |||
South America | Nadahup | Hup | ʔayǔp | koʔǎp | mɔtaʔǎp | hibab’ní | ||||
Hup variants | ||||||||||
Europe and Asia | Japonic | Japanese | hitotsu | futatsu | mittsu | yottsu | ||||
Japanese variants | ichi (2) | B, SL Chinese | ni (1) | B, SL Chinese | san | B, SL Chinese | yon | |||
Japanese variants | shi | B, SL Chinese | ||||||||
Africa | Khoisan | Kwadi | ǁwí | ǀám | dátùa | B, SL Bantu | né | B, SL Bantu | ||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Molise Croatian | jena | dva, dvi | tri | četar | ||||
Molise Croatian variants | ||||||||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Istro-Romanian (Northern) | ur/ura | doi/do | trei | pɒtru | ||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Selice Romani | jékh | dúj | trín | štár | ||||
1.2 Numerals: One–Four (Part B)
Languages | Numerals | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | One | B vs I | Two | B vs I | Three | B vs I | Four | B vs I |
South America | Creole | Saramaccan | wán | tú | dií | fö́ | ||||
Saramaccan variants | ||||||||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Domari | ikak | diyyes | taranes | štares | ||||
Domari variants | ||||||||||
Africa | Niger-Congo, Bantoid | Swahili | -moja | -wili | -tatu | -ne | ||||
Pacific | Austronesian | Takia | ksaek | raru, uraru | utol | iwaiwo | ||||
Takia variants | ||||||||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, Berber | Tarifiyt Berber | ižžən | ŧnayən | B, SL Classical Arabic | ŧřaŧa | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | āƀʕa | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | |
Tarifiyt Berber variants | ištən | |||||||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, Berber | Ayt Ndhir | yun/yuṯ | sin/snaṯ | šraḏ̣ šraṭ | rbɛa | B, SL Arabic | |||
Africa | Nilo-Saharan | Tasawak | fó | hínká | hínzà | táásì | ||||
Tasawak variants | a-fːó | à-hínká | à-hínzà | à-tːáásì | ||||||
South America | isolate | Urarina | lejhia | kuruata(ha)a | nitɕatahaa | heena | ||||
1.3 Numerals: One–Four (Part C)
Languages | Numerals | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | One | B vs I | Two | B vs I | Three | B vs I | Four | B vs I |
Europe and Asia | Tai-Kadai | Thai | nʉ̀ŋ | sɔ̌ɔŋ | sǎam | B, SL Middle Chinese | sìi | B, SL Middle Chinese | ||
Thai variants | ʔèek | B, SL Sanskrit | yîi | B, SL Middle Chinese | trii | B, SL Sanskrit | càtù | B, SL Pali/Sanskrit | ||
Thai variants | ʔèt (2) | thoo | B, SL Sanskrit | tray | B, SL Sanskrit | càtùrá | B, SL Sanskrit | |||
Europe and Asia | Sino-Tibetan | Yakkha | i | hiC | sum | cār | B, SL Nepali | |||
Yakkha variants | eko | B, SL Nepali | ||||||||
Europe and Asia | Sino-Tibetan | Rabha | gósa | aniŋ | antham | cari | B, SL Assamese | |||
Europe and Asia | Hmong-Mien | White Hmong | ib | ob | peb (2) | plaub (2) | B, SL Tibeto-Burman | |||
South America | Matacoan | Wichí | unu | B, SL Spanish | lus | B, SL Spanish | tales | B, SL Spanish | kwatlu | B, SL Spanish |
South America | Tupian | Paraguayan Guaraní | peteĩ | mokõi | mbohapy | irundy | ||||
P. Guaraní variants | ||||||||||
North and Central America | Uto-Aztecan | Yaqui | wepulai | woi | baji | naiki | ||||
Yaqui variants | uno | B, SL Spanish | los ~ dos | B, SL Spanish | tres | B, SL Spanish | kuatro | B, SL Spanish | ||
Pacific | Austronesian | Rapa Nui | tahi | rua | toru | hā | ||||
Rapa Nui variants | ho’e | B, SL Tahitian | piti | B, SL Tahitian | maha | B, SL Tahitian | ||||
1.4 Numerals: Five–Eight (Part A)
Languages | Numerals | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | Five | B vs I | Six | B vs I | Seven | B vs I | Eight | B vs I |
Europe and Asia | Austroasiatic | Ceq Wong | limãʔ | B, SL Malay | nãm | B, SL Malay | tujoh | B, SL Malay | lapan | B, SL Malay |
Europe and Asia | Austroasiatic, Munda | Bondo | moloi | t̪iʔiri | giʔ | ʈomam | ||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, West Chadic | Hausa | bìyár̃ | ono | bákwài | tákwàs | ||||
South America | Nadahup | Hup | ʔayup d’apũ´h | céc | B, SL Portuguese | céci | B, SL Portuguese | ʔóytu | B, SL Portuguese | |
Hup variants | ||||||||||
Europe and Asia | Japonic | Japanese | itsutsu | roku | nanatsu | yattsu | ||||
Japanese variants | go (1) | nana | hachi (3) | |||||||
Japanese variants | shichi | |||||||||
Africa | Khoisan | Kwadi | tánù | B, SL Bantu | ǀítɲàu | ǀátɲàu | sébéþótlt̀extɔpenɔ | |||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Molise Croatian | pet | sèj | B, SL Italo-Romance | sèt | B, SL Italo-Romance | òt | B, SL Italo-Romance | |
Molise Croatian variants | čing | B, SL Italo-Romance | ||||||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Istro-Romanian (Northern) | činč | šɒse | šɒpte | opt | ||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Selice Romani | pándž | šó | efta | B, SL Greek | ofto | B, SL Greek | ||
1.5 Numerals: Five–Eight (Part B)
Languages | Numerals | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | Five | B vs I | Six | B vs I | Seven | B vs I | Eight | B vs I |
South America | Creole | Saramaccan | féífi (2) | síkísi | së́bën | áíti | ||||
Saramaccan variants | séíbi | B, SL Sranan/Dutch | ||||||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Domari | pɅndžes | sitt-ēk-i | B, SL Arabic | sabʕ-ak-i | B, SL Arabic | tamāniy-ak-i | B, SL Arabic | |
Domari variants | ||||||||||
Africa | Niger-Congo, Bantoid | Swahili | -tano | sita | B, SL Arabic | saba | B, SL Arabic | -nane | ||
Pacific | Austronesian | Takia | kafe-n da | siks | B, SL Tok Pisin/English | sabaen | B, SL Tok Pisin/English | eit | B, SL Tok Pisin/English | |
Takia variants | faif | B, SL Tok Pisin/English | ||||||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, Berber | Tarifiyt Berber | xəmsa | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | sətta | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | səƀʕa | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | ŧmənya | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) |
Tarifiyt Berber variants | ||||||||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, Berber | Ayt Ndhir | xǝmsa | B, SL Arabic | sǝtta | B, SL Arabic | sǝbɛa | B, SL Arabic | ṯmanya | B, SL Arabic |
Africa | Nilo-Saharan | Tasawak | xámsà | B, SL Arabic | sítːà | B, SL Arabic | sábàɣà | B, SL Arabic | tàmáníyà | B, SL Arabic |
Tasawak variants | ||||||||||
South America | isolate | Urarina | saukia | sauta | B, SL Quechua | kãsi/kãasi | B, SL Quechua | hoosa/fwoosa | B, SL Quechua | |
1.6 Numerals: Five–Eight (Part C)
Languages | Numerals | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | Five | B vs I | Six | B vs I | Seven | B vs I | Eight | B vs I |
Europe and Asia | Tai-Kadai | Thai | hâa | B, SL Old Chinese | hòk | B, SL Middle Chinese | cèt | B, SL Middle Chinese | pàeaet | B, SL Middle Chinese |
Thai variants | bencà | B, SL Pali/Sanskrit | chɔ̌ɔ | B, SL Pali | sàttà | B, SL Pali/Sanskrit | ʔàtsatà | B, SL Sanskrit | ||
Thai variants | pancà | B, SL Pali/Sanskrit | ||||||||
Europe and Asia | Sino-Tibetan | Yakkha | pā̃c | B, SL Nepali | cʰʌ | B, SL Nepali | sāt | B, SL Nepali | āṭh | B, SL Nepali |
Yakkha variants | ||||||||||
Europe and Asia | Sino-Tibetan | Rabha | pas | B, SL Assamese | soi | B, SL Assamese | sat | B, SL Assamese | at | B, SL Assamese |
Europe and Asia | Hmong-Mien | White Hmong | tsib | rau (3) | B, SL Tibeto-Burman | xya | yim | B, SL Tibeto-Burman | ||
South America | Matacoan | Wichí | sinku | B, SL Spanish | seis | B, SL Spanish | siete | B, SL Spanish | ocho | B, SL Spanish |
South America | Tupian | Paraguayan Guaraní | po | poteĩ | pokõi | poapy | ||||
P. Guaraní variants | cinco | B, SL Spanish | seis | B, SL Spanish | siete | B, SL Spanish | ocho | B, SL Spanish | ||
North and Central America | Uto-Aztecan | Yaqui | mamni | busani | wobusani | wojnaiki | ||||
Yaqui variants | sinko | B, SL Spanish | seis | B, SL Spanish | siete | B, SL Spanish | ocho | B, SL Spanish | ||
Pacific | Austronesian | Rapa Nui | rima | ono | hitu | va'u | B, SL Tahitian | |||
Rapa Nui variants | pae | B, SL Tahitian | ||||||||
1.7 Numerals: Nine–Ten (Part A)
Languages | Numerals | References | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | Nine | B vs I | Ten | B vs I | |
Europe and Asia | Austroasiatic | Ceq Wong | smilan | B, SL Malay | spuloh | B, SL Malay/Chinese | Kruspe (2009) |
Europe and Asia | Austroasiatic, Munda | Bondo | no | B, SL Oriya | d̪os | B, SL Oriya | Chan; Swain (1998: 393) |
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, West Chadic | Hausa | tár̃à | góomà | Awagana et al. (2009) | ||
South America | Nadahup | Hup | nówi | B, SL Portuguese | déc | B, SL Portuguese | Epps (2009) |
Hup variants | d’apũh nihũ´ʔ | Epps (2009) | |||||
Europe and Asia | Japonic | Japanese | kokonotsu | tō (1) | Schmidt (2009) | ||
Japanese variants | kyū (2) | jū (2) | Schmidt (2009) | ||||
Japanese variants | Schmidt (2009) | ||||||
Africa | Khoisan | Kwadi | móyò | B, SL Bantu | mólà | B, SL Bantu | Chan |
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Molise Croatian | nòv | B, SL Italo-Romance | dijač | B, SL Italo-Romance | Breu (2013) |
Molise Croatian variants | Breu (2013) | ||||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Istro-Romanian (Northern) | dɛvet | B, SL Croatian | dɛset | B, SL Croatian | Loporcaro et al. (2021) |
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Selice Romani | eňňa | B, SL Greek | deš | Elšík (2009) | |
1.8 Numerals: Nine–Ten (Part B)
Languages | Numerals | References | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | Nine | B vs I | Ten | B vs I | |
South America | Creole | Saramaccan | në́ígi | téni | Good (2009) | ||
Saramaccan variants | në́ni | Good (2009) | |||||
Europe and Asia | Indo-European | Domari | tisʕ-ak-i | B, SL Arabic | das | Matras (2012) | |
Domari variants | ʕašr-ak-i | B, SL Arabic | Matras (2012) | ||||
Africa | Niger-Congo, Bantoid | Swahili | tisa | B, SL Arabic | kumi | ||
Pacific | Austronesian | Takia | naen | B, SL Tok Pisin/English | ten | B, SL Tok Pisin/English | Ross (2009) |
Takia variants | Ross (2009) | ||||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, Berber | Tarifiyt Berber | tsʕa | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | ʕəšr’a | B, SL Arabic (Moroccan, Classical) | Kossmann (2009) |
Tarifiyt Berber variants | Kossmann (2009) | ||||||
Africa | Afro-Asiatic, Berber | Ayt Ndhir | tsaɛa | B, SL Arabic | ɛǝšra | B, SL Arabic | |
Africa | Nilo-Saharan | Tasawak | tísàɣà | B, SL Arabic | ɣàsárà | B, SL Arabic | |
Tasawak variants | |||||||
South America | isolate | Urarina | iskõo | B, SL Quechua | (le=) tɕuŋka | B, SL Quechua | Olawsky (2006) |
1.9 Numerals: Nine–Ten (Part C)
Languages | Numerals | References | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Areas | L family | RL name | Nine | B vs I | Ten | B vs I | |
Europe and Asia | Tai-Kadai | Thai | kâaw | B, SL Middle Chinese | sìp | B, SL Middle Chinese | Suthiwan (2009) |
Thai variants | nóp | B, SL Pali/Sanskrit | thót | B, SL Pali/Sanskrit | Suthiwan (2009) | ||
Thai variants | Suthiwan (2009) | ||||||
Europe and Asia | Sino-Tibetan | Yakkha | nau | B, SL Nepali | das | B, SL Nepali | Schackow (2015) |
Yakkha variants | Schackow (2015) | ||||||
Europe and Asia | Sino-Tibetan | Rabha | noi | B, SL Assamese | dos | B, SL Assamese | |
Europe and Asia | Hmong-Mien | White Hmong | cuaj | kaum (2) | B, SL Tibeto-Burman | Ratliff (2009) | |
South America | Matacoan | Wichí | nwewe | B, SL Spanish | lyes | B, SL Spanish | Vidal and Nercesian (2009) |
South America | Tupian | Paraguayan Guaraní | porundy | pa | |||
P. Guaraní variants | nueve | B, SL Spanish | diez | B, SL Spanish | |||
North and Central America | Uto-Aztecan | Yaqui | batani | wojmamni | Estrada Fernández (2009) | ||
Yaqui variants | nueve | B, SL Spanish | dies | B, SL Spanish | Estrada Fernández (2009) | ||
Pacific | Austronesian | Rapa Nui | iva | ho’e ‘ahuru; ‘aŋahuru | B, SL Tahitian | Kieviet (2017: 147, 150) | |
Rapa Nui variants | ho ‘e ‘ahuru | B, SL Tahitian | Kieviet (2017: 147, 150) | ||||
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Gardani, F., Zanini, C. (2022). On the Subitizing Effect in Language Contact. In: Levie, R., Bar-On, A., Ashkenazi, O., Dattner, E., Brandes, G. (eds) Developing Language and Literacy. Literacy Studies, vol 23. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99891-2_10
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