Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Oral Contraceptives: Benefits and Risks

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Medicines For Women

  • 1232 Accesses

Abstract

Oral contraceptives remain one of the most commonly used hormonal contraceptives worldwide. Oral contraceptives contain either a combination of synthetic estrogen and progestogen or progestogen only. Combined oral contraceptives often receive negative press because of their impact on cardiovascular health. Yet, when prescribed appropriately offer an effective method which generally offer a favourable benefit to risk profile for most women. There are few medical conditions that would pose an unacceptable health risk to use of the progestogen-only pill.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdel-Aleem H, d’Arcangues C, Vogelsong KM, Gaffield ML, Gu¨lmezoglu AM (2013) Treatment of vaginal bleeding irregularities induced by progestin only contraceptives. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10: CD003449. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003449.pub5

  • ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins – Gynecology (2009) ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 108: Polycystic ovary syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 114(4):936

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahrendt HJ, Karckt U, Pichl T, Mueller T, Ernst U (2007) The effects of an oestrogen-free, desogestrel-containing oral contraceptive in women with cyclical symptoms: results from two studies on oestrogen-related symptoms and dysmenorrhoea. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 12(4):354–361

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahrendt HJ, Adolf D, Buhling KJ (2010) Advantages and challenges of oestrogen-free hormonal contraception. [Review] [72 refs]. Curr Med Res Opin 26(8):1947–1955

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Ophthalmology (2013) Long-term oral contraceptive users are twice as likely to have serious eye disease. http://www.aao.org/newsroom/release/oral-contraceptives-increase-glaucoma-risk.cfm

  • Anon (1967) Risk of thromboembolic disease in women taking oral contraceptives. A preliminary communication to the Medical Research Council by a subcommittee. Br Med J 2(5548): 355–359

    Google Scholar 

  • Anon (2009) ACOG practice bulletin no. 108: polycystic ovary syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 114(4). Available from http://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Fulltext/2009/10000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__108__Polycystic_Ovary.41.aspx

  • Antoniou AC, Rookus M, Andrieu N, Brohet R et al (2009) Reproductive and hormonal factors, and ovarian cancer risks for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: results from the International BRCA1/2 carrier cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18(2):601–610

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arowojolu AO, Gallo MF, Lopez LM, Grimes DA (2012) Combined oral contraceptive pills for treatment of acne. [Review] [Update of Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6:CD004425; PMID: 22696343]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7:CD004425

    Google Scholar 

  • Aubeny E, Buhler M, Colau JC, Vicaut E, Zadikian M, Childs M (2002) Oral contraception: patterns of non-compliance. The Coraliance study. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 7:155–161

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baerwald AR, Olatunbosun OA, Pierson RA (2004) Ovarian follicular development is initiated during the hormone-free interval of oral contraceptive use. Contraception 70:371–377

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baillargeon JP, McClish DK, Essah PA, Nestler JE (2005) Association between the current use of low-dose oral contraceptives and cardiovascular arterial disease: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 90(7):3863–3870

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer PLC (2013) Qlaira: summary of product characteristics (SPC). www.medicines.org/emc

  • Bayer PLC (2014) Dianette: summary of product characteristics (SPC). http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/1814/SPC/Dianette/

  • Bergstrom I, Crisby M, Engstrom AM, Holcke M, Fored M, Jakobsson KP, Of Sandberg AM (2013) Women with anorexia nervosa should not be treated with estrogen or birth control pills in a bone-sparing effect. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 92(8):877–880

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosetti C, Bravi F, Negri E, La Vecchia C (2009) Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 15(5):489–499

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brohet RM, Goldgar DE, Easton DF, Antonious AC, Andrieu N, Chang-Claude J et al (2007) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk in the international BRCA1/2 carrier cohort study. A report from EMBRACE, GENEPSO, GEO-HEBON and the IBCCS Collaborating Group. J Clin Oncol 25(25):3831–3836

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brunner LR, Hogue CJ (2005) The role of body weight in oral contraceptive failure: results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. Ann Epidemiol 15:492–499

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burkman RT, Fisher AC, Wan GJ, Barnowski CE, LaGuardia KD (2009) Association between efficacy and body weight or body mass index for two low-dose oral contraceptives. Contraception 79(6):424–427

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calzolari E, Masciangelo R, Milite V, Verteramo R (2000) Bacterial vaginosis and contraceptive methods. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 70(3):341–346

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell PT, Newcomb P, Gallinger S, Cotterchio M, McLaughlin JR (2007) Exogenous hormones and colorectal cancer risk in Canada: associations stratified by clinically defined familial risk of cancer. Cancer Causes Control 18:723–733

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cancer and Steroid Hormones (CASH) (1987) Combined oral contraceptive use and risk of endometrial cancer. J Am Med Associat 257:796–800

    Google Scholar 

  • Canny PF, Berkowitz GS, Kelsey JL et al (1988) Fibroadenoma and the use of exogenous hormones. A case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 127:454–461

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centre for Disease Control (2010) U.S. medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use 2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 59(RR4):1–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2013) U.S. selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62(RR5):1–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakhtoura Z, Canonico M, Gompel A, Thalabard J-C, Plu-Bureau G (2009) Progestogen-only contraceptives and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis. Stroke 40:1059–1062

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chakhtoura Z, Canonico M, Gompel A, Scarabin P-Y, Plu-Bureau G (2011) Progestogen-only contraceptives and the risk fo acute myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 96(4):1169–1174

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang CL, Donaghy M, Poulter NR, WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception (1999) Migraine and stroke in young women: case-control study. Br Med J 318(13):13–18

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen J, Petrenaite V, Atterman J, Sidenius P, Ohman I, Tomson T, Sabers A (2007) Oral contraceptives induce lamotrigine metabolism: evidence from a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 48(3):484–489

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cibula D, Gompel A, Mueck AO, La Vecchia C, Hannaford PC, Skouby SO, Zikan M, Dusek L (2010) Hormonal contraception and risk of cancer. [Review]. Hum Reprod Update 16(6):631–650

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cibula D, Zikan M, Dusek L, Majek O (2011) Oral contraceptives and risk of ovarian and breast cancers in BRCA mutation carriers: a meta-analysis. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 11(8):1197–1207

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colditz GA (1994) Oral contraceptive use and mortality during 12 years of follow-up: the Nurses Health Study. Ann Intern Med 120:821–826

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative Group on Epidemiological Studies of Ovarian Cancer (2008) Ovarian cancer and oral contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of data from 45 epidemiological studies including 23 257 women with ovarian cancer and 87 303 controls. Lancet 371:303–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer (1996) Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 347:1713–1727

    Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative Study Group on the Desogestrel-containing Progestogen-only Pill (1998) A double-blind study comparing the contraceptive efficacy, acceptability and safety of two progestogen-only pills containing desogestrel 75ug/day or levonorgestrel 30ug/day. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 3:169–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Conde-Agudelo A, Rosas-Bermudez A, Kafury-Goeta AC (2007) Effects of birth spacing on maternal health: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 196(4):297–308

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornish JA, Tan E, Simillis C, Clark SK, Teare J, Tekkis PP (2008) The risk of oral contraceptives in the etiology of inflammatory bowel disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 103:2394–2400

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello MF, Shrestha B, Eden J, Johnson N, Moran LJ (2007) Insulin-sensitising drugs versus the combined oral contraceptive pill for hirsutism, acne and risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and endometrial cancer in polycystic ovary syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1) Art. No.: CD005552. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005552.pub2

  • Creinin MD, Roberts E (2005) Body mass index, weight, and oral contraceptive failure risk. Obstet Gynecol 105(6):1492–1493

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Croft P, Hannaford P (1989) Risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in women – evidence from RCGP oral contraceptive study. Br Med J 298:165–168

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cronin M, Schellschmidt I, Dinger J (2009) Rate of pregnancy after using drospirenone and other progestin-containing oral contraceptives. Obstet Gynecol 114(3):616–622

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis KM, Mohllajee AP, Martins SL, Peterson HB (2006) Combined oral contraceptive use among women with hypertension: a systematic review. Contraception 73:179–188

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis AR, Westhoff C, O’Connell K, Gallagher N (2005) Oral contraceptives for dysmenorrhea in adolescent girls: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 106(1):97–104

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis LJ, Kennedy SS, Moore J, Prentice A (2007) Modern combined oral contraceptives for pain associated with endometriosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3):CD001019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001019.pub2

  • de Bastos M, Stegeman BH, Rosendaal FR, Van Hylckama Vlieg A, Helmerhorst FM, Stijnen T (2014) Combined oral contraceptives: venous thrombosis. Cochrane Database of Syst Rev 3, CD010813. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD010813.pub2

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinger JC, Cronin M, Mohner S, Schellschmidt I, Minh TD, Westhoff C (2009) Oral contraceptive effectiveness according to body mass index, weight, age, and other factors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 201(3):263–269

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dmitrovic R, Kunselman AR, Legro RS (2012) Continuous compared with cyclic oral contraceptives for the treatment of primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 119(6):1143–1150

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doll H, Vessey M, Painter R (2001) Return of fertility in nulliparous women after discontinuation of the intrauterine device: comparison with women discontinuing other methods of contraception. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 108:304–314

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duke JM, Sibbritt DW, Young AF (2007) Is there an association between the use of oral contraception and depressive symptoms in young Australian women? Contraception 75:27–31

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn N, Thorogood M, Faragher B, de Caestecker L, MacDonald T, McCollum C, Thomas S, Ronald M (1999) Oral contraceptives and myocardial infarction: results of the MICA case-control study. Br Med J 318:1579–1584

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunselman GAJ et al (2014) ESHRE guideline: management of women with endometriosis. Hum Reprod 29(3):1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelman AB, Carlson NE, Cherala G, Munar MY, Stouffer RL, Cameron JL, Stanczyk FZ, Jensen JT (2009) Impact of obesity on oral contraceptive pharmacokinetics and hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian activity. Contraception 80:119–127

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edelman A, Micks E, Gallo MF, Jensen JT, Grimes DA (2014) Continuous or extended cycle vs. cyclic use of combined hormonal contraceptives for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7, CD004695. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD004695.pub3

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group, Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, Travis RC, Alberg AJ, Barricarte A, Berrino F, Krogh V, Sieri S, Brinton LA, Dorgan JF, Dossus L, Dowsett M, Eliassen AH, Fortner RT, Hankinson SE, Helzlsouer KJ, Hoff man-Bolton J, Comstock GW, Kaaks R, Kahle LL, Muti P, Overvad K, Peeters PH, Riboli E, Rinaldi S, Rollison DE, Stanczyk FZ, Trichopoulos D, Tworoger SS, Vineis P (2013) Sex hormones and risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women: a collaborative reanalysis of individual participant data from seven prospective studies. Lancet Oncol 14(10):1009–1019

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eschenbach DA, Patton DL, Meier A, Thwin SS, Aura J, Stapleton A, Hooton TM (2000) Effects of oral contraceptive pill use on vaginal flora and vaginal epithelium. Contraception 62(3):107–112

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Espey E, Ogburn T, Leeman L, Singh R, Ostrom K, Schrader R (2012) Effect of progestin compared with combined oral contraceptive pills on lactation: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 119(1):5–13

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Etminan M, Takkouche B, Caamaño Isorna F, Samii A (2005) Risk of ischaemic stroke in people with migraine: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Br Med J 330:63–66

    Google Scholar 

  • European Medicines Agency (2014a) Benefits of combined hormonal contraceptives (CHCs) continue to outweigh risks. Product information updated to help women make informed decisions about their choice of contraception. EMA, London. http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/medicines/human/referrals/Combined_hormonal_contraceptives/human_referral_prac_000016.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac05805c516f

  • European Medicines Agency (2014b) Levonorgestrel and ulipristal remain suitable emergency contraceptives for all women, regardless of bodyweight. European Medicines Agency, London

    Google Scholar 

  • European Medicines Agency Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee (2013) Cyproterone and ethinylestradiol containing medicinal products. EMA London http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Referrals_document/cyproterone_ethinylestradiol_107i/Position_provided_by_CMDh/WC500143778.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Health Care (2009a) The management of unscheduled bleeding in women using hormonal contraception. http://www.fsrh.org/pdfs/unscheduledbleedingmay09.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Health Care (2009b) UK medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. (UKMEC 2009). http://www.fsrh.org/admin/uploads/UKMEC2009.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Health Care (2009c) Sexual and reproductive health for individuals with inflammatory bowel disease. http://www.fsrh.org.uk/admin/uploads/CEUGuidanceIBD09.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare (2010) Quick starting contraception. http://www.fsrh.org/admin/uploads/678_CEUGuidanceQuickStartingContraception.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare (2011a) Combined hormonal contraception. http://www.fsrh.org/pdfs/CEUGuidanceCombinedHormonalContraception.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual & Reproductive Health Care (2011b) Drug interactions with hormonal contraception. http://www.fsrh.org/pdfs/CEUGuidanceDrugInteractionsHormonal.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare (2012) Management of vaginal discharge in non-genitourinary medicine settings. http://www.fsrh.org/pdfs/CEUGuidanceVaginalDischarge.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare (2013) Statement from the Clinical Effectiveness Unit in response to news reports of a link between combined oral contraceptive pills and glaucoma. http://www.fsrh.org/pdfs/CEUstatementCOCandGlaucoma.pdf

  • Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Health Care (2015) Progestogen-only pills (in press). http://www.fsrh.org

  • Feigin VL, Forouzanfar MH, Krishnamurthi R, Mensah GA, Connor M, Bennett DA, Moran AE, Sacco RL, Anderson L, Truelsen T, O’Donnell M, Venketasubramanian N, Barker-Collo S, Lawes CMM, Wang W, Shinohara Y, Witt E, Ezzati M, Naghavi M, Murray C (2014) Global and regional burden of stroke during 1990–2010: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 383(9913): 245–255. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61953-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4181600/

  • Fernandez E, Vecchia CL, Balducci A, Chatenoud L, Franceschi S, Negri E (2001) Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 84(5):722–727

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser IS, Parked S, Mellinger U, Machlitt A, Serrani M, Jensen J (2011) Effective treatment of heavy and/or prolonged menstrual bleeding without organic cause: pooled analysis of two multinational, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of oestradiol valerate and dienogest. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 16(4):258–269. Published online 20 Jul 2011. doi: 10.3109/13625187.2011.591456. PMCID: PMC3154543

  • Gaffield ME, Culwell KR, Ravi A (2009) Oral contraceptives and family history of breast cancer. Contraception 80:372–380

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo MF, Nanda K, Grimes DA, Lopez LM, Schulz KF (2013) 20 μg versus >20 μg estrogen combined oral contraceptives for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8, CD003989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo MF, Lopez LM, Grimes DA, Carayon F, Schulz KF, Helermhorst FM (2014) Combination contraceptives: effects on weight. Cochrane Database of Syst Rev 1, CD003987. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD003987.pub5

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill JK, Press MF, Ptel AV, Brenstein L (2006) Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast carcinoma in situ (United States). Cancer Causes Control 17:1155–1162

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • GlaxoSmithKline UK (2014) Lamictal: summary of product characteristics. https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/

  • Grimes DA, Lopez LM, O’Brien PA, Raymond EG (2013) Progestin-only pills for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 11, CD007541. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD007541.pub3

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halfvarson J, Jess T, Magnuson A, Montgomery SM, Orholm M, Tysk C et al (2006) Environmental factors in inflammatory bowel disease: a co-twin control study of a Swedish-Danish twin population. Inflamm Bowel Dis 12(10):925–933

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hannaford P, Elliot A (2005) Use of exogenous hormones by women and colorectal cancer: evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners’ oral contraception study. Contraception 71:95–98

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hannaford PC, Selvaraj S, Elliot AM, Angus V, Iversen L, Lee AJ (2007) Cancer risk among users of oral contraceptive: cohort data from the Royal College of General Practitioner’s oral contraceptive study. BMJ 335(7621):651

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hannaford PC, Iversen L, Macfarlane TV, Elliot AM, Angus V, Lee AJ (2010) Mortality among contraceptive pill users: cohort evidence from Royal College of General Practitioners oral contraception study. Br Med J 340(c927):1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassan MA, Killick SR (2004) Is previous use of hormonal contraception associated with a detrimental effect on subsequent fecundity? Hum Reprod 19(2):344–351

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Havrilesky LJ, Moorman PG, Lowery WJ, Gierisch JM, Coeytaux RR, Urrutia RP, Dinan M, McBroom AJ, Hasselblad V, Sanders GD, Myers ER (2013) Oral contraceptive pills as primary prevention for ovarian cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. [Review]. Obstet Gynecol 122(1):139–147

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hedon B et al (1992) Ovarian consequences of the transient interruption of combined oral contraceptives. Int J Fertil 37(5):270–276

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holt VL, Cushing-Haugen KL, Daling JR (2002) Body weight and risk of oral contraceptive failure. Obstet Gynecol 99(5 (Part 1)):820–827

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holt VL, Scholes D, Wicklund KG, Cushing-Haugen KL, Daling JR (2005) Body mass index, weight, and oral contraceptive failure risk. Obstet Gynecol 105(1):46–52

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huber J, Foidart JM, Wuttke W, Merki-Feld GS, The HS, Gerlinger C, Schellschmidt I, Heithecker R (2000) Efficacy and tolerability of a monophasic oral contraceptive containing ethinylestradiol and drospirenone. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 5(1):25–34

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Malspeis S, Spiegelman D, Chen W, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (2010) Oral contraceptive use and breast cancer: a prospective study of young women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19(10):2496–2502

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer (2007) Cervical cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data for 16573 women with cervical cancer and 35509 women without cervical cancer from 24 epidemiological studies. Lancet 370:1609–1620

    Google Scholar 

  • Iodice S, Barile M, Rotmensz N, Feroce I, Bonanni B, Radice P, Bernard L, Maisonneuve P, Gandini S (2010) Oral contraceptive use and breast or ovarian cancer risk in BRCA1/2 carriers: a meta-analysis. [Review]. Eur J Cancer 46(12):2275–2284

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen-Cilag Ltd (2014) Evra transdermal patch: summary of product characteristics (SPC) http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/

  • Jick SS, Walker AM, Jick H (1993) Oral contraceptives and endometrial cancer. Obstet Gynecol 82(6):931–935

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joffe H, Cohen LS, Harlow BL (2003) Impact of oral contraceptive pill use on premenstrual mood: predictors of improvement and deterioration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189(6):1523–1530

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joint Formulary Committee. British National Formulary (2014) British National Formulary: BNF 67 British Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahlenborn C, Modugno F, Potter DM, Severs WB (2006) Oral contraceptive use as a risk factor for premenopausal breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc 81(10):1290–1302

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kapp N, Curtis KM (2010) Combined oral contraceptive use among breastfeeding women: a systematic review. [Review]. Contraception 82(1):10–16

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes KM, Cheslack-Postava K, Westhoff C, Heim CM, Haloossim M, Walsh K, Koenen K (2013) Association of hormonal contraceptive use with reduced levels of depressive symptoms: a national study of sexually active women in the United States. Am J Epidemiol 178(9):1378–1388

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khader YS, Rice J, John L, Abueita O (2003) Oral contraceptives use and the risk of myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis. Contraception 68:11–17

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khalili H, Higuchi LM, Ananthakrishnan AN, Richter JM, Feskanich D, Fuchs CS et al (2013) Oral contraceptives, reproductive factors and risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 62(8):1153–1159

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Killick SR (1989) Ovarian follicles during oral contraceptive cycles: their potential for ovulation. Fertil Steril 52(4):580–582

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Killick SR, Eyong E, Elstein M (1987) Ovarian follicular development in oral contraceptive cycle. Fertil Steril 48(3):409–413

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Killick SR, Bancroft K, Oelbaum S, Morris J, Elstein M (1990) Extending the duration of the pill-free interval during combined oral contraception. Adv Contracept 6(1):33–40

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korver T, Klipping C, Heger-Mahn D, Duijkers I, van Osta G, Dieben T (2005) Maintenance of ovulation inhibition with the 75ug desogestrel-only contraceptive pill (Cerazette) after scheduled 12h delay in tablet intake. Contraception 71:8–13

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrie TA, Helmerhorst FM, Maitra NK, Kulier R, Bloemenkamp K, Gülmezoglu AM (2011) Types of progestogens in combined oral contraception: effectiveness and side-effects. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (5):CD004861. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004861.pub2

  • Layton AM (2010) Treatment of hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovarian syndrome. In: Balen A et al (eds) Current management of polycystic ovary syndrome. RCOG Press, London, pp 125–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee E, Ma H, McKean-Cowdin R, Van Den Berg D, Bernstein L, Henderson BE et al (2008) Effect of reproductive factors and oral contraceptives on breast cancer risk in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and noncarriers: results from a population based study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17(11):3170–3178

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lidegaard O (1993) Oral contraception and risk of cerebral thromboembolic attack: results of a case-control study. Br Med J 306:956–963

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lidegaard O, Lokkegaard E, Jensen A, Skovlund CW, Keiding N (2012) Thrombotic stroke and myocardial infarction with hormonal contraception. N Engl J Med 366(24):2257–2266

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loder EW, Buse DC, Golub JR (2005) Headache as a side effect of combination estrogen-progestin oral contraceptives: a systematic review. [Review]. Am J Obstet Gynecol 193(3:Pt 1):636–649 [48 refs]

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez LM, Chen M, Mullins S, Curtis KM, Helmerhorst FM (2012) Steroidal contraceptives and bone fractures in women: evidence from observational studies. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8, CD009849. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD009849.pub2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez LM, Edelman A, Chen M, Otterness C, Trussell J, Helmerhorst FM (2013a) Progestin-only contraceptives: effects on weight. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7, CD008815. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD008815.pub3

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez LM, Grimes DA, Chen M, Otterness C, Westhoff C, Edelman A Helmerhorst FM (2013b) Hormonal contraceptives for contraception in overweight or obese women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez LM, Grimes DA, Schulz KF, Curits KM, Chen M (2014) Steroidal contraceptives: effect on bone fractures in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6, CD006033. doi:10.1002/14651858, CD006033.pub5

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loudon NB, Kirkman RJ, Dewsbury JA (1990) A double-blind comparison of the efficacy and acceptability of Femodene and Microgynon-30. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 34(3):257–266

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luhn P, Walker J, Schiffman M, Zuna RE, Dunn ST, Gold MA, Smith K, Mathews C, Allen RA, Zhang R, Wang S, Wentzensen N (2013) The role of co-factors in the progression from human papillomavirus infection to cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 128(2):265–270

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lumsden MA, Gebbie A, Holland C (2013) Managing unscheduled bleeding in non-pregnant premenopausal women. [Review]. BMJ 346:f3251

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lurie G, Thompson P, McDuffie KE, Carney ME, Terada KY, Goodman MT (2007) Association of estrogen and progestin potency of oral contraceptive with ovarian carcinoma risk. Obstet Gynecol 109(3):597–607

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lurie G, Wilkens LR, Thompson PJ, McDuffie KE, Carney ME, Terada KY (2008) Combined oral contraceptive use and epithelial ovarian cancer risk: time-related effects. Epidemiology 19(2):237–243

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacGregor EA (2013) Contraception and headache. Headache 53(2):247–276. Available from http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/head.12035

  • Mansour D, Inki P, Gemzell-Danielsson K (2010) Efficacy of contraceptive methods: a review of the literature. [Review] [7 refs]. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 15(1):4–16

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mansour D, Gemzell-Danielsson K, Inki P, Jensen JT (2011) Fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a comprehensive review of the literature. [Review]. Contraception 84(5):465–477

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, Folger SG, Mandel MG, Daling JR, Bernstein L, Malone KE, Ursin G, Strom BL, Norman SA, Wingo PA, Burkman RT, Berlin JA, Simon MS, Spirtas R, Weiss LK (2002) Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 346:2025–2032

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martins SL, Curtis KM, Glasier AF (2006) Combined hormonal contraception and bone health: a systematic review. Contraception 73:445–469

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matteson KA, Rahn DD, Wheeler TL, Casiano E, Siddiqui NY, Harvie HS, Mamik MM, Balk EM, Sung VW, Society of Gynecologic Surgeons Systematic Review Group (2013) Nonsurgical management of heavy menstrual bleeding: a systematic review. [Review]. Obstet Gynecol 121(3):632–643

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCann MF, Potter LS (1994) Progestin-only oral contraception: a comprehensive review. Contraception 50(1):S159–S188

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire V, Felberg A, Mills M, Ostrow KL, DiCioccio R, John EM, West DW, Whittemore AS (2004) Relation of contraceptive and reproductive history to ovarian cancer risk in carriers and noncarriers of BRCA1 gene mutations. Am J Epidemiol 160:613–618

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin JR, Risch HA, Lubinkski J, Moller P, Ghadirian P, Lynch H, Karlan B, Fishman D, Rosen B, Neuhausen SL, Offit K, Kauff N, Domchek S, Tung N, Friedman E, Foulkes W, Sun P, Narod SA, Hereditary Ovarian Cancer Clinical Study Group (2007) Reproductive risk factors for ovarian cancer in carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations: a case control study. Lancet Oncol 8:26–34

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merck Sharp and Dohme Limited (2014a) Zoely: summary of product characteristics. http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc

  • Merck Sharp and Dohme Limited (2014b) Cerazette75 microgram film-coated tablet: summary of product characteristics. http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc

  • Merki-Feld GS, Imthurn B, Langner R, Sandor PS, Gantenbein AR (2013a) Headache frequency and intensity in female migraineurs using desogestrel-only contraception: a retrospective pilot diary study. Cephalalgia 33(5):340–346

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merki-Feld GS, Imthurn B, Seifert B, Merki LL, Agosti R, Gantenbein AR (2013b) Desogestrel-only contraception may reduce headache frequency and improve quality of life in women suffering from migraine. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 18(5):394–400

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikkelsen EM, Riis AH, Wise LA, Hatch EE, Rothman KJ, Sorensen HT (2013) Pre-gravid oral contraceptive use and time to pregnancy: a Danish prospective cohort study. Hum Reprod 28(5):1398–1405

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milne RL, Knight EM, John GS, Dite R, Balbuena R, Ziogas A et al (2005) Oral contraceptive use and the risk of early-onset cancer in carriers and noncarriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. Women’s Oncol Rev 5(2):127–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Moorman PG, Calingaert B, Palmieri RT, Iversent ES, Bentley RC, Halabi S, Berchuck A, Schildkraut JM (2008) Hormonal risk factors for ovarian cancer in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 167(9):1059–1069

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nappi RE, Sances G, Allais G, Terreno E, Benedetto C, Vaccaro V, Polatti F, Facchinetti F (2011) Effects of an estrogen-free, desogestrel-containing oral contraceptive in women with migraine with aura: a prospective diary-based pilot study. Contraception 83(3):223–228

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nappi C, Bifulco G, Tommaselli GA, Gargano V, Di Carlo C (2012) Hormonal contraception and bone metabolism: a systematic review. [Review]. Contraception 86(6):606–621

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Narod SA, Dubé M, Klijn J, Lubinski J, Lynch HT, Ghadirian P, Provencher D, Heimdal K, Moller P, Robson M, Offit K, Isaacs C, Weber B, Friedman E, Gershoni-Baruch R, Rennert G, Pasini B, Wagner T, Daly M, Garber J, Neuhausen SL, Ainsworth P, Olsson H, Kin-Saing C, Olopade O, Tung N, Saal HM, Weitzel J, Merajver S, Gauthier-Villars M, Jernstrom H, Sun P, Brunet J (2002) Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 94(23):1773–1779

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) Heavy menstrual bleeding, NICE clinical guideline 44. RCOG Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ness RB, Grisso JA, Klapper J, Schlesselman JJ, Silberzweig S, Vergona R, Morgan M, Wheeler JE, SHARE Study Group (2000) Risk of ovarian cancer in relation to estrogen and progestin dose and use characteristics of oral contraceptives. Am J Epidemiol 3:233–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichols HB, Trentham-Dietz A, Hampton JM, Newcomb PA (2005) Oral contraceptive use, reproductive factors, and colorectal cancer risk: findings from Wisconsin. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14(5):1212–1218

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols HB, Trentham-Dietz A, Egan KM, Titus-Ernstoff L, Hampton JM, Newcomb PA (2007) Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast carcinoma in situ. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16(11):2262–2268

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pasquale LR, Kang JH (2011) Female reproductive factors and primary open-angle glaucoma in the Nurses Health Study. Eye 25(5)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pastor Z, Holla K, Chmel R (2013) The influence of combined oral contraceptives on female sexual desire: a systematic review. [Review]. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 18(1):27–43

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paulen ME, Zapata LB, Cansino C, Curtis KM, Jamieson DJ (2010) Contraceptive use among women with a history of bariatric surgery: a systematic review. [Review]. Contraception 82(1):86–94

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peragallo UR, Coeytaux RR, McBroom AJ, Gierisch JM, Havrilesky LJ, Moorman PG, Lowery WJ, Dinan M, Hasselblad V, Sanders GD, Myers ER (2013) Risk of acute thromboembolic events with oral contraceptive use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. [Review]. Obstet Gynecol 122(2:Pt 1):380–389

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfizer Limited (2010) Noriday tablets: summary of product characteristics. http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/

  • Plu-Bureau G, Hugon-Rodin J, Maitrot-Mantelet L, Canonico M (2013) Hormonal contraceptives and arterial disease: an epidemiological update. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 27(1):35–45. Available from http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1521690X12001157?showall=true

  • Poole EM, Merritt MA, Jordan SJ, Yang HP, Hankinson SE, Park Y, Rosner B, Webb PM, Cramer DW, Wentzensen N, Terry KL, Tworoger SS (2013) Hormonal and reproductive risk factors for epithelial ovarian cancer by tumor aggressiveness. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 22(3):429–437

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potter L, Oakley D, de Leon-Wong E, Canamar R (1996) Measuring compliance among oral contraceptive users. Fam Plann Perspect 28:154–158

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Razzi S, Luisi S, Ferretti C, Calonaci F, Gabbanini M, Mazzini M et al (2007) Use of a progestogen only preparation containing desogestrel in the treatment of recurrent pelvic pain after conservative surgery for endometriosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 135(2):188–190

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice CF, Killick SR, Dieben T, Coelingh Bennink H (1999) A comparison of the inhibition of ovulation achieved by desogestrel 75ug and levonorgestrel 30ug daily. Hum Reprod 14(4):982–985

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riggs M, Klebanoff M, Nansel T, Zhang J, Schwebke J, Andrews W (2007) Longitudinal association between hormonal contraceptives and bacterial vaginosis in women of reproductive age. Sex Transm Dis 34(12):954–959

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Risk of thromboembolic disease in women taking oral contraceptives. A preliminary communication to the Medical Research Council by a Subcommittee (1967) Br Med J 2(5548):355–359

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivera R, Yacobson I, Grimes D (1999) The mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives and intrauterine contraceptive devices. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 181(5 Part 1):1263–1269

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg L, Zhang Y, Coogan PF, Strom BL, Palmer JR (2009) A case-control study of oral contraceptive use and incident of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 169:473–479

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (2007a) Green top guideline no. 33: long-term consequences of polycystic ovary syndrome. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (2007b) Management of premenstrual symptoms. Green-top guideline no 48. http://www.rcog.org.uk/files/rcog-corp/uploaded-files/GT48ManagementPremensturalSyndrome.pdf

  • Rungruang B, Kelley JL III (2011) Benign breast diseases: epidemiology, evaluation, and management. Clin Obstet Gynecol 54(1):110–124

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sabers A, Buchholt JM, Uldall P, Hansen EL (2001) Lamotrigine plasma levels reduced by oral contraceptives. Epilepsy Res 47:151–154

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sabers A, Ohman I, Christensen J, Tomson T (2003) Oral contraceptives reduce lamotrigine plasma levels. Neurology 51:570–571

    Google Scholar 

  • Sacco S, Ornello R, Ripa P, Pistoia F, Carolei A (2013) Migraine and hemorrhagic stroke: a meta-analysis. Stroke 44(11):3032–3038

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaffir J (2006) Hormonal contraception and sexual desire: a critical review. [Review] [34 refs]. J Sex Marital Ther 32(4):305–314

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schurks M, Rist PM, Bigal ME, Buring JE, Lipton RB, Kurth T (2009) Migraine and cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br Med J 339:b3914

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro S, Rosenberg L, Hoffman M, Truter H, Cooper D, Rao S, Dent D, Gudgeon A, van Zyl J, Katzenellenbogen J, Baillie R (2000) Risk of breast cancer in relation to the use of injectable progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen/progestogen contraceptives. Am J Epidemiol 151(4):396–403

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shoubnikova M, Hellberg D, Nilsson S, Mardh P (1997) Contraceptive use in women with bacterial vaginosis. Contraception 55:355–358

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sitruk-Ware R, Thalabard JC, Benotmane A et al (1989) Risk factors for breast fibroadenoma in young women. Contraception 40:251–268

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spona J, Elstein M, Feichtinger W, Sullivan H, Ludicke F, Muller U, Dusterberg B (1996) Shorter pill-free interval in combined oral contraceptives decreases follicular development. Contraception 54:71–77

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2013) Management of acute abnormal uterine bleeding in non-pregnant reproductive-aged women: committee opinion. 557. Obstet Gynecol 121:891–896

    Google Scholar 

  • The Cancer and Steroid Hormone Study of the Centers for Disease Control and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (1987) The reduction in risk of ovarian cancer associated with oral-contraceptive use. N Engl J Med 316(11):650–655

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorneycroft IH (1999) Cycle control with oral contraceptives: a review of the literature. [Review]. Am J Obstet Gynecol 180(2:Pt 2):280–287 [14 refs]

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Troisi R, Schairer C, Chow W, Schatzkin A, Brinton LA, Fraumeni JF (1997) Reproductive factors, oral contraceptive use, and risk of colorectal cancer. Epidemiology 8:75–79

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truitt ST, Fraser AB, Grimes DA, Gallo MF, Schulz KF (2003) Combined hormonal versus nonhormonal versus progestin-only contraception in lactation (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library [4]. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Trussell J (2011) Contraceptive efficacy. In: Hatcher R et al. (eds) Contraceptive technology Twentieth Revised edn. Ardent Media, New York, pp 779–863

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsilidis KK, Allen NE, Key TJ, Bakken K, Lund E, Berrino F, Fournier A, Olsen A, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Boutron-Ruault MC, Clavel-Chapelon F, Byrnes G, Chajes V, Rinaldi S, Chang-Claude J, Kaaks R, Bergmann M, Boeing H, Koumantaki Y, Stasinopoulou G, Trichopoulou A, Palli D, Tagliabue G, Panico S, Tumino R, Vineis P, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, van Duijnhoven FJ, van Gils CH, Peeters PH, Rodriguez L, Gonzalez CA, Sanchez MJ, Chirlaque MD, Barricarte A, Dorronsoro M, Borgquist S, Manjer J, van GB, Hallmans G, Rodwell SA, Khaw KT, Norat T, Romaguera D, Riboli E (2010) Oral contraceptives, reproductive history and risk of colorectal cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Br J Cancer 103(11):1755–1759

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsilidis KK, Allen NE, Key TJ, Dossus L, Lukanova A, Bakken K, Lund E, Fournier A, Overvad K, Hansen L, Tjonneland A, Fedirko V, Rinaldi S, Romieu I, Clavel-Chapelon F, Engel P, Kaaks R, Schutze M, Steffen A, Bamia C, Trichopoulou A, Zylis D, Masala G, Pala V, Galasso R, Tumino R, Sacerdote C, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, van Duijnhoven FJB, Braem MGM, Onland-Moret NC, Gram IT, Rodriguez L, Travier N, Sanchez MJ, Huerta JM, Ardanaz E, Larranaga N, Jirstrom K, Manjer J, Idahl A, Ohlson N, Khaw KT, Wareham N, Mouw T, Norat T, Riboli E (2011) Oral contraceptive use and reproductive factors and risk of ovarian cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Br J Cancer 105(9):1436–1442

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tworoger SS, Fairfiled KM, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hankinson SE (2007) Association of oral contraceptive use, other contraceptive methods, and infertility with ovarian cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 166:894–901

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tzourio C, Tehindrazanarivelo A, Iglésias S et al (1995) Case-control study of migraine and risk of ischaemic stroke in young women. Br Med J 310:830–833

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division (2013) World contraceptive use 2012

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Woude CJ, Kolacek S, Dotan I, Oresland T, Vermeire S, Munkholm P, Mahadevan U, Mackillop L, Dignass A, European Crohn’s Colitis Org (2010) European evidenced-based consensus on reproduction in inflammatory bowel disease. J Crohns Colitis 4(5):493–510

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey MP, Painter R (1995) Endometrial and ovarian cancer and oral contraceptives – findings in a large cohort study. Br J Cancer 71:1340–1342

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Painter R (2001) Oral contraceptive failures and body weight: findings in a large cohort study. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 27(2):90–91

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Painter R (2006) Oral contraceptive use and cancer. Findings in a large cohort study, 1968–2004. Br J Cancer 95:385–389

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Yeates D (2007) Oral contraceptives and benign breast disease: an update of findings in a large cohort study. Contraception 76:418–424

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Yeates D (2013) Oral contraceptive use and cancer: final report from the Oxford Family Planning Association contraceptive study. Contraception 88(6):678–683

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey MP, Smith MA, Yeats D (1986) Return of fertility after discontinuation of oral contraceptives: influence of age and parity. Br J Fam Plann 11:120–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Vessey MP, Hannaford P, Mant J, Painter R, Frith P, Chappel D (1998) Oral contraception and eye disease: findings in two large cohort studies. Br J Ophthalmol 82:538–542

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Painter R, Yeates D (2003) Mortality in relation to oral contraceptive use and cigarette smoking. Lancet 362:185–191

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Yeates D, Flynn S (2010) Factors affecting mortality in a large cohort study with special reference to oral contraceptive use. Contraception 82:221–229

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waller DK, Gallaway MS, Taylor LG, Ramadhani TA, Canfield MA, Scheuerle A, Hernandez-Diaz S, Louik C, Correa A (2010) Use of oral contraceptives in pregnancy and major structural birth defects in offspring. Epidemiology 21(2)

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiderpass E, Adami H, Baron JA, Magnusson C, Lindgren A, Persson I (1999) Use of oral contraceptives and endometrial cancer risk (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 10:277–284

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westhoff CL, Torgal AH, Mayeda ER, Pike MC, Stanczyk FZ (2010) Pharmacokinetics of a combined oral contraceptive in obese and normal-weight women. Contraception 81:474–480

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whittemore AS, Balise RR, Pharouh PD, Dicioccio RA, Oakley-Girvan I, Ramus SJ, Daly M, Usinowicz MB, Garlinghouse-Jones K, Ponder BA, Buys S, Senie R, Andrulis I, John E, Hopper JL, Piver MS (2004) Oral contraceptive use and ovarian cancer risk among carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Br J Cancer 91(11):1911–1915

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception (1996) Haemorrhagic stroke, overall stroke risk, and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international, multicentre, case-control study. Lancet 346:505–510

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis SA, Kuehl TJ, Spiekerman M, Sulak PJ (2006) Greater inhibition of the pituitary-ovarian axis in oral contraceptive regimens with a shortened hormone-free interval. Contraception 74:100–103

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong CL, Farquhar C, Roberts H, Proctor M (2009) Oral contraceptive pill as treatment for primary dysmenorrhoea (Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2, CD002120. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002120.pub3

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. Department of Reproductive Health and Research (2004) Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edn. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. Department of making pregnancy safer. Department of reproductive health and research. Report of a technical consultation on birth spacing. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/birth_spacing05/en/

  • World Health Organization (2005) Department of making pregnancy safer. Department of reproductive health and research. Report of a technical consultation on birth spacing. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on Cancer (1999) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Hormonal contraception and post-menopausal therapy, vol 72. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2010) Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use 4th edition 2009. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/family_planning/9789241563888/en/index.html. WHO, Geneva

  • World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, 100A. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization, Department of Reproductive Health and Research (2009) Progestogen-only contraceptive use during lactation and its effects on the neonate. WHO/RHR/09.13, http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_RHR_09.13_eng.pdf?ua=1. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

  • World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012) IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. 100A Published by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon France

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu CQ, Grandi SM, Filion KB, Abenhaim HA, Joseph L, Eisenberg MJ (2013a) Drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive pills and the risk of venous and arterial thrombosis: a systematic review. [Review]. BJOG 120(7):801–810

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu L, Wu Q, Liu L (2013b) Oral contraceptive pills for endometriosis after conservative surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. [Review]. Gynecol Endocrinol 29(10):883–890

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang L, Kuper H, Sandin S, Margolis KL, Chen Z, Adami H-O, Weiderpass E (2009) Reproductive history, oral contraceptive use, and the risk of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in a cohort study of middle-aged swedish women. Stroke 40:1050–1058

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young EA, Kornstein SG, Harvey AT, Wisniewski SR, Barkin J, Fava M, Trivedi MH, Rush AJ (2007) Influences of hormone-based contraception on depressive symptoms in premenopausal women with major depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32(7):843–853

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zapata LB, Paulen ME, Cansino C, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM (2010) Contraceptive use among women with inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review. [Review]. Contraception 82(1):72–85

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sandyford Sexual Health Service, NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, 2-6 Sandyford Place, Glasgow, G3 7NB, UK

    Julie Craik & Louise Melvin

Authors
  1. Julie Craik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Louise Melvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julie Craik .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dean’s Department, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

    Mira Harrison-Woolrych

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Craik, J., Melvin, L. (2015). Oral Contraceptives: Benefits and Risks. In: Harrison-Woolrych, M. (eds) Medicines For Women. Adis, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12406-3_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12406-3_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Adis, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-12405-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-12406-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation