Abstract
Infective endocarditis, even if adequately treated, can be associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Clinical outcomes are influenced by multiple factors which include valve characteristics, host factors, causative organisms, development of intracardiac, or systemic complications and the therapeutic options.
This chapter will provide an overview of current treatment regimens for infective endocarditis.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Olaison L, Pettersson G. Current best practices and guidelines indications for surgical intervention in infective endocarditis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002;16(2):453–75.
Mylonakis E, Calderwood SB. Infective endocarditis in adults. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(18):1318–30.
Mylonakis E, Calderwood SB. Infective endocarditis. Lancet. 2004;363(9403):139–49.
Hoen B, Alla F, Selton-Suty C, Béguinot I, Bouvet A, Briançon S, Casalta JP, Danchin N, Delahaye F, Etienne J, Le Moing V, Leport C, Mainardi JL, Ruimy R, Vandenesch F, Association pour l’Etude et la Prévention de l’Endocardite Infectieuse (AEPEI) Study Group. Changing profile of infective endocarditis: results of a 1-year survey in France. JAMA. 2002;288(1):75–81.
Tornos P, Iung B, Permanyer-Miralda G, Baron G, Delahaye F, Gohlke-Bärwolf C, Butchart EG, Ravaud P, Vahanian A. Infective endocarditis in Europe: lessons from the Euro heart survey. Heart. 2005;91(5):571–5.
Lambert RJ, Pearson J. Susceptibility testing: accurate and reproducible minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and non-inhibitory concentration (NIC) values. J Appl Microbiol. 2000;88(5):784–90.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Methods for dilution antimicrobial susceptibility tests for bacteria that grow aerobically; approved standard—9th edition, CLSI document M07-A9 [Electronic]). Wayne: Laboratory Standards Institute; 2012.
European Committee for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID). EUCAST definitive document E.Def 1.2, May 2000: terminology relating to methods for the determination of susceptibility of bacteria to antimicrobial agents. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2000;6(9):503–8.
Shanson DC. New guidelines for the antibiotic treatment of streptococcal, enterococcal and staphylococcal endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;42(3):292–6.
Liu YQ, Zhang YZ, Gao PJ. Novel concentration-killing curve method for estimation of bactericidal potency of antibiotics in an in vitro dynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(10):3884–91.
Pankey GA, Sabath LD. Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal mechanisms of action in the treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(6):864–70.
Wilson WR, Karchmer AW, Dajani AS, Taubert KA, Bayer A, Kaye D, Bisno AL, Ferrieri P, Shulman ST, Durack DT. Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci, and HACEK microorganisms. American Heart Association. JAMA. 1995;274(21):1706–13.
Gould FK, Denning DW, Elliott TS, Foweraker J, Perry JD, Prendergast BD, Sandoe JA, Spry MJ, Watkin RW, Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. Guidelines for the diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of endocarditis in adults: a report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67(2):269–89.
Finberg RW, Moellering RC, Tally FP, Craig WA, Pankey GA, Dellinger EP, West MA, Joshi M, Linden PK, Rolston KV, Rotschafer JC, Rybak MJ. The importance of bactericidal drugs: future directions in infectious disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(9):1314–20.
Henriques Normark B, Normark S. Antibiotic tolerance in pneumococci. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2002;8(10):613–22.
Delahaye F, Hoen B, McFadden E, Roth O, de Gevigney G. Treatment and prevention of infective endocarditis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2002;3(2):131–45.
LaPlante KL, Rybak MJ. Impact of high-inoculum Staphylococcus aureus on the activities of nafcillin, vancomycin, linezolid, and daptomycin, alone and in combination with gentamicin, in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(12):4665–72.
Nannini EC, Singh KV, Murray BE. Relapse of type A beta-lactamase-producing Staphylococcus aureus native valve endocarditis during cefazolin therapy: revisiting the issue. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(9):1194–8.
Hessen MT, Kaye D. Principles of use of antibacterial agents. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2004;18(3):435–50.
Chambers HF, Mills J, Drake TA, Sande MA. Failure of a once-daily regimen of cefonicid for treatment of endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus. Rev Infect Dis. 1984;6 Suppl 4:S870–4.
Craig WA. Basic pharmacodynamics of antibacterials with clinical applications to the use of ß-lactams, glycopeptides, and linezolid. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2003;17(3):503–28.
Levison ME. Pharmacodynamics of antimicrobial drugs. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2004;18(3):451–65.
Perry JD, Jones AL, Gould FK. Glycopeptide tolerance in bacteria causing endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;44(1):121–4.
Hanslik T, Hartig C, Jurand C, Armand-Lefevre L, Jubault V, Rouveix E, Dubourg O, Prinseau J, Baglin A, Nicolas-Chanoine MH. Clinical significance of tolerant strains of streptococci in adults with infective endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2003;9(8):852–7.
May J, Shannon K, King A, French G. Glycopeptide tolerance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;42(2):189–97.
Olaison L, Hogevik H, Alestig K. Fever, C-reactive protein, and other acute-phase reactants during treatment of infective endocarditis. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157(8):885–92.
Blumberg EA, Robbins N, Adimora A, Lowy FD. Persistent fever in association with infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15(6):983–90.
Horstkotte D, Follath F, Gutschik E, Lengyel M, Oto A, Pavie A, Soler-Soler J, Thiene G, von Graevenitz A, Priori SG, Garcia MA, Blanc JJ, Budaj A, Cowie M, Dean V, Deckers J, Fernández Burgos E, Lekakis J, Lindahl B, Mazzotta G, Morais J, Oto A, Smiseth OA, Lekakis J, Vahanian A, Delahaye F, Parkhomenko A, Filipatos G, Aldershvile J, Vardas P, Task Force Members on Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG); Document Reviewers. Guidelines on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of infective endocarditis executive summary; the task force on infective endocarditis of the European society of cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2004;25(3):267–76.
Hoen B. Special issues in the management of infective endocarditis caused by gram-positive cocci. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002;16(2):437–52.
Cabell CH, Jollis JG, Peterson GE, Corey GR, Anderson DJ, Sexton DJ, Woods CW, Reller LB, Ryan T, Fowler Jr VG. Changing patient characteristics and the effect on mortality in endocarditis. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(1):90–4.
No authors listed. Antibiotic treatment of streptococcal, enterococcal, and staphylococcal endocarditis. Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. Heart. 1998;79(2):207–10.
Facklam R. What happened to the streptococci: overview of taxonomic and nomenclature changes. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15(4):613–30.
Doern CD, Burnham CA. It’s not easy being green: the viridans group streptococci, with a focus on pediatric clinical manifestations. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48(11):3829–35.
Jacobs JA, Tjhie JH, Smeets MG, Schot CS, Schouls LM. Genotyping by amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis reveals persistence and recurrence of infection with Streptococcus anginosus group organisms. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(7):2862–6.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Methods for dilution antimicrobial susceptibility tests for bacteria that grow aerobically approved standard M29-A3. 7th ed. Wayne: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2006.
Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler Jr VG, Bolger AF, Levison ME, Ferrieri P, Gerber MA, Tani LY, Gewitz MH, Tong DC, Steckelberg JM, Baltimore RS, Shulman ST, Burns JC, Falace DA, Newburger JW, Pallasch TJ, Takahashi M, Taubert KA, Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; American Heart Association; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association: endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Circulation. 2005;111(23):e394–434.
Habib G, Hoen B, Tornos P, Thuny F, Prendergast B, Vilacosta I, Moreillon P, de Jesus Antunes M, Thilen U, Lekakis J, Lengyel M, Müller L, Naber CK, Nihoyannopoulos P, Moritz A, Zamorano JL, ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. Guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infective endocarditis (new version 2009): the Task Force on the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the International Society of Chemotherapy (ISC) for Infection and Cancer. Eur Heart J. 2009;30(19):2369.
Baxter R. Infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(10):782–3.
Uh Y, Shin DH, Jang IH, Hwang GY, Lee MK, Yoon KJ, Kim HY. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and macrolide resistance genes of viridans group streptococci from blood cultures in Korea. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;53(6):1095–7.
Doern GV, Ferraro MJ, Brueggemann AB, Ruoff KL. Emergence of high rates of antimicrobial resistance among viridans group streptococci in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40(4):891–4.
Levy CS, Kogulan P, Gill VJ, Croxton MB, Kane JG, Lucey DR. Endocarditis caused by penicillin-resistant viridans streptococci: 2 cases and controversies in therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(4):577–9.
Levitz RE. Prosthetic-valve endocarditis caused by penicillin-resistant Streptococcus mitis. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(23):1843–4.
Spanik S, Trupl J, Kunova A, Botek R, Sorkovska D, Grey E, Studena M, Lacka J, Oravcova E, Krchnakova A, Rusnakova V, Svec J, Krupova I, Grausova S, Stopkova K, Koren P, Krcmery Jr V. Viridans streptococcal bacteraemia due to penicillin-resistant and penicillin-sensitive streptococci: analysis of risk factors and outcome in 60 patients from a single cancer centre before and after penicillin is used for prophylaxis. Scand J Infect Dis. 1997;29(3):245–9.
Diekema DJ, Beach ML, Pfaller MA, Jones RN, SENTRY Participants Group. Antimicrobial resistance in viridans group streptococci among patients with and without the diagnosis of cancer in the USA, Canada and Latin America. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001;7(3):152–7.
Westling K, Julander I, Ljungman P, Heimdahl A, Thalme A, Nord CE. Reduced susceptibility to penicillin of viridans group streptococci in the oral cavity of patients with haematological disease. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(10):899–903.
Tuohy M, Washington JA. Antimicrobial susceptibility of viridans group streptococci. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1997;29(4):277–80.
Gordon KA, Beach ML, Biedenbach DJ, Jones RN, Rhomberg PR, Mutnick AH. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of beta-hemolytic and viridans group streptococci: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997–2000). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;43(2):157–62.
Seppälä H, Haanperä M, Al-Juhaish M, Järvinen H, Jalava J, Huovinen P. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and macrolide resistance genes of viridans group streptococci from normal flora. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;52(4):636–44.
Johnson AP, Warner M, Broughton K, James D, Efsratiou A, George RC, Livermore DM. Antibiotic susceptibility of streptococci and related genera causing endocarditis: analysis of UK reference laboratory referrals, January 1996 to March 2000. BMJ. 2001;322(7283):395–6.
García-de-la-Mària C, Pericas JM, Del Río A, Castañeda X, Vila-Farrés X, Armero Y, Espinal PA, Cervera C, Soy D, Falces C, Ninot S, Almela M, Mestres CA, Gatell JM, Vila J, Moreno A, Marco F, Miró JM, Hospital Clinic Experimental Endocarditis Study Group. Early in vitro and in vivo development of high-level daptomycin resistance is common in mitis group Streptococci after exposure to daptomycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(5):2319–25.
Graham JC, Gould FK. Role of aminoglycosides in the treatment of bacterial endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;49(3):437–44.
Wilson WR, Giuliani ER, Geraci JE. Treatment of penicillin-sensitive streptococcal endocarditis. Mayo Clin Proc. 1982;57(2):95–100.
Wilson WR, Geraci JE. Treatment of streptococcal infective endocarditis. Am J Med. 1985;78(6B):128–37.
Hurlé A, Nistal JF, Gutierrez JA, Rodriguez MA, Revuelta JM. Isolated apical intracavitary left ventricular abscess in a normal heart: a rare complication of Streptococcus milleri endocarditis. Cardiovasc Surg. 1996;4(1):61–3.
Levandowski RA. Streptococcus milleri endocarditis complicated by myocardial abscess. South Med J. 1985;78(7):892–3.
Woo PC, Tse H, Chan KM, Lau SK, Fung AM, Yip KT, Tam DM, Ng KH, Que TL, Yuen KY. “Streptococcus milleri” endocarditis caused by Streptococcus anginosus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004;48(2):81–8.
Kennedy HF, Gemmell CG, Bagg J, Gibson BE, Michie JR. Antimicrobial susceptibility of blood culture isolates of viridans streptococci: relationship to a change in empirical antibiotic therapy in febrile neutropenia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;47(5):693–6.
Quinn JP, DiVincenzo CA, Lucks DA, Luskin RL, Shatzer KL, Lerner SA. Serious infections due to penicillin-resistant strains of viridans streptococci with altered penicillin-binding proteins. J Infect Dis. 1988;157(4):764–9.
Bochud PY, Eggiman P, Calandra T, Van Melle G, Saghafi L, Francioli P. Bacteremia due to viridans streptococcus in neutroopenic patients with cancer: clinical spectrum and risk factors. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18(1):25–31.
Docze A, Mraz M, Grey E, Bucko E, Korcova J, Svetlansky I, Sabo Z, Krcméry V. Penicillin resistance in viridans streptococcal bacteremia is related with high mortality. Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35(11–12):916–7.
Schlegel L, Grimont F, Ageron E, Grimont PA, Bouvet A. Reappraisal of the taxonomy of the Streptococcus bovis/Streptococcus equinus complex and related species: description of Streptococcus gallolyticus subsp. gallolyticus subsp. nov., S. gallolyticus subsp. macedonicus subsp. nov. and S. gallolyticus subsp. pasteurianus subsp. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2003;53(Pt 3):631–45.
van’t Wout JW, Bijlmer HA. Bacteremia due to streptococcus gallolyticus, or the perils of revised nomenclature in bacteriology. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(7):1070–1.
Hoen B, Chirouze C, Cabell CH, Selton-Suty C, Duchêne F, Olaison L, Miro JM, Habib G, Abrutyn E, Eykyn S, Bernard Y, Marco F, Corey GR, International Collaboration on Endocarditis Study Group. Emergence of endocarditis due to group D streptococci: findings derived from the merged database of the International Collaboration on Endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24(1):12–6.
Siegman-Igra Y, Schwartz D. Streptococcus bovis revisited: a clinical review of 81 bacteremic episodes paying special attention to emerging antibiotic resistance. Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35(2):90–3.
Barrau K, Boulamery A, Imbert G, Casalta JP, Habib G, Messana T, Bonnet JL, Rubinstein E, Raoult D. Causative organisms of infective endocarditis according to host status. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(4):302–8.
Kupferwasser I, Darius H, Müller AM, Mohr-Kahaly S, Westermeier T, Oelert H, Erbel R, Meyer J. Clinical and morphological characteristics in Streptococcus bovis endocarditis: a comparison with other causative microorganisms in 177 cases. Heart. 1998;80(3):276–80.
Duval X, Papastamopoulos V, Longuet P, Benoit C, Perronne C, Leport C, Vildé JL. Definite streptococcus bovis endocarditis: characteristics in 20 patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001;7(1):3–10.
Pergola V, Di Salvo G, Habib G, Avierinos JF, Philip E, Vailloud JM, Thuny F, Casalta JP, Ambrosi P, Lambert M, Riberi A, Ferracci A, Mesana T, Metras D, Harle JR, Weiller PJ, Raoult D, Luccioni R. Comparison of clinical and echocardiographic characteristics of Streptococcus bovis endocarditis with that caused by other pathogens. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88(8):871–5.
Tripodi MF, Adinolfi LE, Ragone E, Durante Mangoni E, Fortunato R, Iarussi D, Ruggiero G, Utili R. Streptococcus bovis endocarditis and its association with chronic liver disease: an underestimated risk factor. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(10):1394–400.
González-Juanatey C, González-Gay MA, Llorca J, Testa A, Corredoira J, Vidán J, Mayo J, González-Juanatey JR. Infective endocarditis due to Streptococcus bovis in a series of nonaddict patients: clinical and morphological characteristics of 20 cases and review of the literature. Can J Cardiol. 2003;19(10):1139–45.
Biarc J, Nguyen IS, Pini A, Gossé F, Richert S, Thiersé D, Van Dorsselaer A, Leize-Wagner E, Raul F, Klein JP, Schöller-Guinard M. Carcinogenic properties of proteins with pro-inflammatory activity from Streptococcus infantarius (formerly S.bovis). Carcinogenesis. 2004;25(8):1477–84.
Beebe JL, Koneman EW. Recovery of uncommon bacteria from blood: association with neoplastic disease. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8(3):336–56.
Klein RS, Catalano MT, Edberg SC, Casey JI, Steigbigel NH. Streptococcus bovis septicemia and carcinoma of the colon. Ann Intern Med. 1979;91(4):560–2.
Gonzlez-Quintela A, Martínez-Rey C, Castroagudín JF, Rajo-Iglesias MC, Domínguez-Santalla MJ. Prevalence of liver disease in patients with Streptococcus bovis bacteraemia. J Infect. 2001;42(2):116–9.
Gold JS, Bayar S, Salem RR. Association of Streptococcus bovis bacteremia with colonic neoplasia and extracolonic malignancy. Arch Surg. 2004;139(7):760–5.
Brouqui P, Raoult D. Endocarditis due to rare and fastidious bacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14(1):177–207.
Liao CH, Teng LJ, Hsueh PR, Chen YC, Huang LM, Chang SC, Ho SW. Nutritionally variant streptococcal infections at a University Hospital in Taiwan: disease emergence and high prevalence of beta-lactam and macrolide resistance. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(3):452–5.
Collins MD, Lawson PA. The genus Abiotrophia (Kawamura et al.) is not monophyletic: proposal of Granulicatella gen. nov., Granulicatella adiacens comb. nov., Granulicatella elegans comb. nov. and Granulicatella balaenopterae comb. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2000;50(Pt 1):365–9.
Ruoff KL. Nutritionally variant streptococci. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1991;4(2):184–90.
Roggenkamp A, Abele-Horn M, Trebesius KH, Tretter U, Autenrieth IB, Heesemann J. Abiotrophia elegans sp. nov., a possible pathogen in patients with culture-negative endocarditis. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(1):100–4.
Hepburn MJ, Fraser SL, Rennie TA, Singleton CM, Delgado Jr B. Septic arthritis caused by Granulicatella adiacens: diagnosis by inoculation of synovial fluid into blood culture bottles. Rheumatol Int. 2003;23(5):255–7.
Tuohy MJ, Procop GW, Washington JA. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Abiotrophia adiacens and Abiotrophia defectiva. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000;38(3):189–91.
Murray CK, Walter EA, Crawford S, McElmeel ML, Jorgensen JH. Abiotrophia bacteremia in a patient with neutropenic fever and antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Abiotrophia isolates. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(10):E140–2.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Methods for antimicrobial dilution and disk susceptibility testing of infrequently isolated fastidious bacteria; approved guideline M45-A2. 2nd ed. Wayne: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2010.
Bouvet A. Human endocarditis due to nutritionally variant streptococci: streptococcus adjacens and Streptococcus defectivus. Eur Heart J. 1995;16(Suppl B):24–7.
Stein DS, Nelson KE. Endocarditis due to nutritionally deficient streptococci: therapeutic dilemma. Rev Infect Dis. 1987;9(5):908–16.
Cooksey RC, Swenson JM. In vitro antimicrobial inhibition patterns of nutritionally variant streptococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1979;16(4):514–8.
Christensen JJ, Gruhn N, Facklam RR. Endocarditis caused by Abiotrophia species. Scand J Infect Dis. 1999;31(2):210–2.
Aronin SI, Mukherjee SK, West JC, Cooney EL. Review of pneumococcal endocarditis in adults in the penicillin era. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(1):165–71.
Taylor SN, Sanders CV. Unusual manifestations of invasive pneumococcal infection. Am J Med. 1999;107(1A):12S–27.
Siegel M, Timpone J. Penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae endocarditis: a case report and review. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(6):972–4.
Muñoz P, Sainz J, Rodríguez-Creixéms M, Santos J, Alcalá L, Bouza E. Austrian syndrome caused by highly penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29(6):1591–2.
Breiman RF, Butler JC, Tenover FC, Elliott JA, Facklam RR. Emergence of drug-resistant pneumococcal infections in the United States. JAMA. 1994;271(23):1831–5.
Butler JC, Hofmann J, Cetron MS, Elliott JA, Facklam RR, Breiman RF. The continued emergence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: an update from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Pneumococcal Sentinel Surveillance System. J Infect Dis. 1996;174(5):986–93.
Bruinsma N, Kristinsson KG, Bronzwaer S, Schrijnemakers P, Degener J, Tiemersma E, Hryniewicz W, Monen J, Grundmann H, European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (EARSS). Trends of penicillin and erythromycin resistance among invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae in Europe. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54(6):1045–50.
Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J, Harrison LH, Lexau C, Reingold A, Lefkowitz L, Cieslak PR, Cetron M, Zell ER, Jorgensen JH, Schuchat A, Active Bacterial Core Surveillance Program of the Emerging Infections Program Network. Increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(26):1917–24.
Collignon PJ, Turnidge JD. Antibiotic resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Med J Aust. 2000;173(Suppl):S58–64.
Chambers HF. Penicillin-binding protein-mediated resistance in pneumococci and staphylococci. J Infect Dis. 1999;179 Suppl 2:S353–9.
Baquero F, García-Rodríguez JA, García de Lomas J, Aguilar L. Antimicrobial resistance of 1,113 Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from patients with respiratory tract infections in Spain: results of a 1-year (1996–1997) multicenter surveillance study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43(2):357–9.
Decousser JW, Pina P, Viguier F, Picot F, Courvalin P, Allouch P, ColBVH Study Group. Invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae in France: antimicrobial resistance, serotype, and molecular epidemiology findings from a monthly national study in 2000 to 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(9):3636–9.
Low DE, de Azavedo J, Weiss K, Mazzulli T, Kuhn M, Church D, Forward K, Zhanel G, Simor A, McGeer A. Antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Canada during 2000. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46(5):1295–301.
Oteo J, Alós JI, Gómez-Garcés JL. Antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in 1999 and 2000 in Madrid, Spain: a multicentre surveillance study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;47(2):215–8.
Vanderkooi OG, Low DE, Green K, Powis JE, McGeer A, Toronto Invasive Bacterial Disease Network. Predicting antimicrobial resistance in invasive pneumococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(9):1288–97.
Pottumarthy S, Fritsche TR, Jones RN. Comparative activity of oral and parenteral cephalosporins tested against multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997–2003). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;51(2):147–50.
Morrissey I, Robbins M, Viljoen L, Brown DF. Antimicrobial susceptibility of community-acquired respiratory tract pathogens in the UK during 2002/3 determined locally and centrally by BSAC methods. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005;55(2):200–8.
Clarke P, Murchan S, Smyth EG, Humphreys H. Antimicrobial susceptibility of invasive isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Ireland. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(7):657–9.
Hortal M, Lovgren M, de la Hoz F, Agudelo CI, Brandileone MC, Camou T, Casagrande S, Castañeda E, Corso A, Echaniz G, Hormazabal JC, Pace J, Palacio R, Perez-Giffoni G, Ruvinsky R, Di Fabio JL, PAHO SIREVA-Vigía Study Group. Antibiotic resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in six Latin American countries: 1993–1999 surveillance. Microb Drug Resist. 2001;7(4):391–401.
Pancharoen C, Thisyakorn C, Lertsapcharoen P, Likitnukul S, Thisyakorn U. Endocarditis caused by drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in a child. Scand J Infect Dis. 1999;31(6):597–8.
Whitby S, Pallera A, Schaberg DR, Bronze MS. Infective endocarditis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae with high-level resistance to penicillin and cephalosporin. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23(5):1176–7.
Durante Mangoni E, Adinolfi LE, Tripodi MF, Andreana A, Gambardella M, Ragone E, Precone DF, Utili R, Ruggiero G. Risk factors for “major” embolic events in hospitalized patients with infective endocarditis. Am Heart J. 2003;146(2):311–6.
Viladrich PF, Gudiol F, Liñares J, Pallarés R, Sabaté I, Rufí G, Ariza J. Evaluation of vancomycin for therapy of adult pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35(12):2467–72.
Lindberg J, Prag J, Schønheyder HC. Pneumococcal endocarditis is not just a disease of the past: an analysis of 16 cases diagnosed in Denmark 1986–1997. Scand J Infect Dis. 1998;30(5):469–72.
Finley JC, Davidson M, Parkinson AJ, Sullivan RW. Pneumococcal endocarditis in Alaska natives. A population-based experience, 1978 through 1990. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152(8):1641–5.
Lindberg J, Fangel S. Recurrent endocarditis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Scand J Infect Dis. 1999;31(4):409–10.
Baddour LM. Infective endocarditis caused by beta-hemolytic streptococci. The Infectious Diseases Society of America’s Emerging Infections Network. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(1):66–71.
Lefort A, Lortholary O, Casassus P, Selton-Suty C, Guillevin L, Mainardi JL, beta-Hemolytic Streptococci Infective Endocarditis Study Group. Comparison between adult endocarditis due to beta-hemolytic streptococci (serogroups A, B, C, and G) and Streptococcus milleri: a multicenter study in France. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(21):2450–6.
Mohan UR, Walters S, Kroll JS. Endocarditis due to group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus in children with potentially lethal sequelae: 2 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(3):624–5.
Upton A, Drinkovic D, Pottumarthy S, West T, Morris AJ. Culture results of heart valves resected because of streptococcal endocarditis: insights into duration of treatment to achieve valve sterilization. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005;55(2):234–9.
Johnson AP, Warner M, Woodford N, Speller DC, Livermore DM. Antibiotic resistance among enterococci causing endocarditis in the UK: analysis of isolates referred to a reference laboratory. BMJ. 1998;317(7159):629–30.
Murray BE. The life and times of the Enterococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1990;3(1):46–65.
Fontana R, Grossato A, Ligozzi M, Tonin EA. In vitro response to bactericidal activity of cell wall-active antibiotics does not support the general opinion that enterococci are naturally tolerant to these antibiotics. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(8):1518–22.
Murray BE. Diversity among multidrug-resistant enterococci. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998;4(1):37–47.
Rice LB. Emergence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):183–7.
Signoretto C, Boaretti M, Canepari P. Peptidoglycan synthesis by Enterococcus faecalis penicillin binding protein 5. Arch Microbiol. 1998;170(3):185–90.
Dina J, Malbruny B, Leclercq R. Nonsense mutations in the lsa-like gene in Enterococcus faecalis isolates susceptible to lincosamides and Streptogramins A. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(4):2307–9.
Singh KV, Weinstock GM, Murray BE. An Enterococcus faecalis ABC homologue (Lsa) is required for the resistance of this species to clindamycin and quinupristin-dalfopristin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46(6):1845–50.
Bozdogan B, Berrezouga L, Kuo MS, Yurek DA, Farley KA, Stockman BJ, Leclercq R. A new resistance gene, linB, conferring resistance to lincosamides by nucleotidylation in Enterococcus faecium HM1025. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43(4):925–9.
Min YH, Jeong JH, Choi YJ, Yun HJ, Lee K, Shim MJ, Kwak JH, Choi EC. Heterogeneity of macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B resistance phenotypes in enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(11):3415–20.
McManus MC. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 1997;54(12):1420–33.
Goodhart GL. In vivo v in vitro susceptibility of enterococcus to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. A pitfall. JAMA. 1984;252(19):2748–9.
Grayson ML, Thauvin-Eliopoulos C, Eliopoulos GM, Yao JD, DeAngelis DV, Walton L, Woolley JL, Moellering Jr RC. Failure of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy in experimental enterococcal endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(9):1792–4.
Simjee S, Gill MJ. Gene transfer, gentamicin resistance and enterococci. J Hosp Infect. 1997;36(4):249–59.
Herman DJ, Gerding DN. Screening and treatment of infections caused by resistant enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35(2):215–9.
Hodges TL, Zighelboim-Daum S, Eliopoulos GM, Wennersten C, Moellering Jr RC. Antimicrobial susceptibility changes in Enterococcus faecalis following various penicillin exposure regimens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992;36(1):121–5.
Storch GA, Krogstad DJ. Antibiotic-induced lysis of enterococci. J Clin Invest. 1981;68(3):639–45.
Fontana R, Boaretti M, Grossato A, Tonin EA, Lleò MM, Satta G. Paradoxical response of Enterococcus faecalis to the bactericidal activity of penicillin is associated with reduced activity of one autolysin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(2):314–20.
Qin X, Singh KV, Xu Y, Weinstock GM, Murray BE. Effect of disruption of a gene encoding an autolysin of Enterococcus faecalis OG1RF. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42(11):2883–8.
Moellering Jr RC, Weinberg AN. Studies on antibiotic syngerism against enterococci. II. Effect of various antibiotics on the uptake of 14 C-labeled streptomycin by enterococci. J Clin Invest. 1971;50(12):2580–4.
Horodniceanu T, Bougueleret L, El-Solh N, Bieth G, Delbos F. High-level, plasmid-borne resistance to gentamicin in Streptococcus faecalis subsp. zymogenes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1979;16(5):686–9.
Pfaller MA, Jones RN, Doern GV, Sader HS, Kugler KC, Beach ML. Survey of blood stream infections attributable to gram-positive cocci: frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates collected in 1997 in the United States, Canada, and Latin America from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. SENTRY Participants Group. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;33(4):283–97.
Landman D, Quale JM. Management of infections due to resistant enterococci: a review of therapeutic options. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997;40(2):161–70.
Donabedian SM, Thal LA, Hershberger E, Perri MB, Chow JW, Bartlett P, Jones R, Joyce K, Rossiter S, Gay K, Johnson J, Mackinson C, Debess E, Madden J, Angulo F, Zervos MJ. Molecular characterization of gentamicin-resistant Enterococci in the United States: evidence of spread from animals to humans through food. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(3):1109–13.
Miranda G, Lee L, Kelly C, Solórzano F, Leaños B, Muñoz O, Patterson JE. Antimicrobial resistance from enterococci in a pediatric hospital. Plasmids in Enterococcus faecalis isolates with high-level gentamicin and streptomycin resistance. Arch Med Res. 2001;32(2):159–63.
Eliopoulos GM, Farber BF, Murray BE, Wennersten C, Moellering Jr RC. Ribosomal resistance of clinical enterococcal to streptomycin isolates. [sic]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1984;25(3):398–9.
Ono S, Muratani T, Matsumoto T. Mechanisms of resistance to imipenem and ampicillin in Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(7):2954–8.
Fontana R, Aldegheri M, Ligozzi M, Lopez H, Sucari A, Satta G. Overproduction of a low-affinity penicillin-binding protein and high-level ampicillin resistance in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994;38(9):1980–3.
Enterococci KD. Biologic and epidemiologic characteristics and in vitro susceptibility. Arch Intern Med. 1982;142(11):2006–9.
DiazGranados CA, Zimmer SM, Klein M, Jernigan JA. Comparison of mortality associated with vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-susceptible enterococcal bloodstream infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(3):327–33.
Linden PK. Treatment options for vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections. Drugs. 2002;62(3):425–41.
Mascini EM, Bonten MJ. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: consequences for therapy and infection control. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005;11 Suppl 4:43–56.
Safdar A, Bryan CS, Stinson S, Saunders DE. Prosthetic valve endocarditis due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium: treatment with chloramphenicol plus minocycline. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(11):E61–3.
Archuleta S, Murphy B, Keller MJ. Successful treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium endocarditis with linezolid in a renal transplant recipient with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Transpl Infect Dis. 2004;6(3):117–9.
Moellering RC. Linezolid: the first oxazolidinone antimicrobial. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138(2):135–42.
Paladino JA. Linezolid: an oxazolidinone antimicrobial agent. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2002;59(24):2413–25.
Miyazaki S, Fujikawa T, Kobayashi I, Matsumoto T, Tateda K, Yamaguchi K. The in vitro and in vivo antibacterial characterization of vancomycin and linezolid against vancomycin-susceptible and -resistant enterococci. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;50(6):971–4.
El-Khoury J, Fishman JA. Linezolid in the treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in solid organ transplant recipients: report of a multicenter compassionate-use trial. Transpl Infect Dis. 2003;5(3):121–5.
Crank CW, Scheetz MH, Brielmaier B, Rose WE, Patel GP, Ritchie DJ, Segreti J. Comparison of outcomes from daptomycin or linezolid treatment for vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bloodstream infection: a retrospective, multicenter, cohort study. Clin Ther. 2010;32(10):1713–9.
Ang JY, Lua JL, Turner DR, Asmar BI. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium endocarditis in a premature infant successfully treated with linezolid. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(12):1101–3.
Ravindran V, John J, Kaye GC, Meigh RE. Successful use of oral linezolid as a single active agent in endocarditis unresponsive to conventional antibiotic therapy. J Infect. 2003;47(2):164–6.
Rao N, White GJ. Successful treatment of Enterococcus faecalis prosthetic valve endocarditis with linezolid. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(7):902–4.
Babcock HM, Ritchie DJ, Christiansen E, Starlin R, Little R, Stanley S. Successful treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus endocarditis with oral linezolid. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(9):1373–5.
Pai MP, Rodvold KA, Schreckenberger PC, Gonzales RD, Petrolatti JM, Quinn JP. Risk factors associated with the development of infection with linezolid- and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(10):1269–72.
Gonzales RD, Schreckenberger PC, Graham MB, Kelkar S, DenBesten K, Quinn JP. Infections due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium resistant to linezolid. Lancet. 2001;357(9263):1179.
Ruggero KA, Schroeder LK, Schreckenberger PC, Mankin AS, Quinn JP. Nosocomial superinfections due to linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecalis: evidence for a gene dosage effect on linezolid MICs. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;47(3):511–3.
Sweeney MT, Zurenko GE. In vitro activities of linezolid combined with other antimicrobial agents against Staphylococci, Enterococci, Pneumococci, and selected gram-negative organisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(6):1902–6.
Hancock RE. Mechanisms of action of newer antibiotics for Gram-positive pathogens. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(4):209–18.
Segreti JA, Crank CW, Finney MS. Daptomycin for the treatment of gram-positive bacteremia and infective endocarditis: a retrospective case series of 31 patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2006;26(3):347–52.
Levine DP, Lamp KC. Daptomycin in the treatment of patients with infective endocarditis: experience from a registry. Am J Med. 2007;120(10 Suppl 1):S28–33.
Gallagher JC, Perez ME, Marino EA, LoCastro LG, Abrardo LA, MacDougall C. Daptomycin therapy for vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bacteremia: a retrospective case series of 30 patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2009;29(7):792–9.
Kullar R, Davis SL, Levine DP, Zhao JJ, Crank CW, Segreti J, Sakoulas G, Cosgrove SE, Rybak MJ. High-dose daptomycin for treatment of complicated gram-positive infections: a large, multicenter, retrospective study. Pharmacotherapy. 2011;31(6):527–36.
Cerón I, Muñoz P, Marín M, Segado A, Roda J, Valerio M, Bouza E, Group for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the Gregorio Marañón Hospital (GAME). Efficacy of daptomycin in the treatment of enterococcal endocarditis: a 5 year comparison with conventional therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69(6):1669–74.
Miro JM, Anguera I, Cabell CH, Chen AY, Stafford JA, Corey GR, Olaison L, Eykyn S, Hoen B, Abrutyn E, Raoult D, Bayer A, Fowler Jr VG, International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database Study Group. Staphylococcus aureus native valve infective endocarditis: report of 566 episodes from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(4):507–14.
Fowler Jr VG, Miro JM, Hoen B, Cabell CH, Abrutyn E, Rubinstein E, Corey GR, Spelman D, Bradley SF, Barsic B, Pappas PA, Anstrom KJ, Wray D, Fortes CQ, Anguera I, Athan E, Jones P, van der Meer JT, Elliott TS, Levine DP, Bayer AS, ICE Investigators. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a consequence of medical progress. JAMA. 2005;293(24):3012–21.
Chang FY, MacDonald BB, Peacock Jr JE, Musher DM, Triplett P, Mylotte JM, O’Donnell A, Wagener MM, Yu VL. A prospective multicenter study of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: incidence of endocarditis, risk factors for mortality, and clinical impact of methicillin resistance. Medicine (Baltimore). 2003;82(5):322–32.
Røder BL, Wandall DA, Frimodt-Møller N, Espersen F, Skinhøj P, Rosdahl VT. Clinical features of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a 10-year experience in Denmark. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159(5):462–9.
Vilacosta I, Graupner C, San Román JA, Sarriá C, Ronderos R, Fernández C, Mancini L, Sanz O, Sanmartín JV, Stoermann W. Risk of embolization after institution of antibiotic therapy for infective endocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(9):1489–95.
Chambers HF. The changing epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus? Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):178–82.
Lowy FD. Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(8):520–32.
Livermore DM. Antibiotic resistance in staphylococci. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2000;16 Suppl 1:S3–10.
Woodford N. Biological counterstrike: antibiotic resistance mechanisms of Gram-positive cocci. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005;11 Suppl 3:2–21.
Zetola N, Francis JS, Nuermberger EL, Bishai WR. Community-acquired meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an emerging threat. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(5):275–86.
Zimmer SM, Caliendo AM, Thigpen MC, Somani J. Failure of linezolid treatment for enterococcal endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(3):e29–30.
Lin JC, Wu JS, Chang FY. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis with septic embolism of popliteal artery: a case report. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2000;33(1):57–9.
Cosgrove SE, Qi Y, Kaye KS, Harbarth S, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y. The impact of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia on patient outcomes: mortality, length of stay, and hospital charges. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(2):166–74.
Melzer M, Eykyn SJ, Gransden WR, Chinn S. Is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus more virulent than methicillin-susceptible S. aureus? A comparative cohort study of British patients with nosocomial infection and bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(11):1453–60.
Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN, Schwaber MJ, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(1):53–9.
Hurley JC. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: an ecological analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(6):866–8.
Chang FY. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and endocarditis. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2000;33(2):63–8.
Pittet D, Harding I. Infective endocarditis and glycopeptides. J Infect. 1998;37(2):127–35.
Rubinstein E, Carbon C. Staphylococcal endocarditis – recommendations for therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1998;4 Suppl 2:S27–33.
Chang FY, Peacock Jr JE, Musher DM, Triplett P, MacDonald BB, Mylotte JM, O’Donnell A, Wagener MM, Yu VL. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: recurrence and the impact of antibiotic treatment in a prospective multicenter study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2003;82(5):333–9.
Siegman-Igra Y, Reich P, Orni-Wasserlauf R, Schwartz D, Giladi M. The role of vancomycin in the persistence or recurrence of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Scand J Infect Dis. 2005;37(8):572–8.
Fowler Jr VG, Kong LK, Corey GR, Gottlieb GS, McClelland RS, Sexton DJ, Gesty-Palmer D, Harrell LJ. Recurrent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: pulsed-field gel electrophoresis findings in 29 patients. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(5):1157–61.
Levine DP, Fromm BS, Reddy BR. Slow response to vancomycin or vancomycin plus rifampin in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115(9):674–80.
Small PM, Chambers HF. Vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(6):1227–31.
Andrade-Baiocchi S, Tognim MC, Baiocchi OC, Sader HS. Endocarditis due to glycopeptide-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus: case report and strain characterization. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;45(2):149–52.
Woods CW, Cheng AC, Fowler Jr VG, Moorefield M, Frederick J, Sakoulas G, Meka VG, Tenover FC, Zwadyk P, Wilson KH. Endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(8):1188–91.
Takayama Y, Hanaki H, Irinoda K, Kokubun H, Yoshida K, Sunakawa K. Investigation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus showing reduced vancomycin susceptibility isolated from a patient with infective endocarditis. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2003;22(6):567–73.
Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos EG, Fowler Jr VG, Moellering Jr RC, Novick RP, Lucindo N, Yeaman MR, Bayer AS. Reduced susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to vancomycin and platelet microbicidal protein correlates with defective autolysis and loss of accessory gene regulator (agr) function. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(7):2687–92.
Ruef C. Epidemiology and clinical impact of glycopeptide resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Infection. 2004;32(6):315–27.
Mallaval FO, Carricajo A, Delavenna F, Recule C, Fonsale N, Manquat G, Raffenot D, Rogeaux O, Aubert G, Tous J. Detection of an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides in a French hospital. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(5):459–61.
Howden BP, Ward PB, Charles PG, Korman TM, Fuller A, du Cros P, Grabsch EA, Roberts SA, Robson J, Read K, Bak N, Hurley J, Johnson PD, Morris AJ, Mayall BC, Grayson ML. Treatment outcomes for serious infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(4):521–8.
Charles PG, Ward PB, Johnson PD, Howden BP, Grayson ML. Clinical features associated with bacteremia due to heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(3):448–51.
Khosrovaneh A, Riederer K, Saeed S, Tabriz MS, Shah AR, Hanna MM, Sharma M, Johnson LB, Fakih MG, Khatib R. Frequency of reduced vancomycin susceptibility and heterogeneous subpopulation in persistent or recurrent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(9):1328–30.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Performance standards for antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests; approved standard M02-A11. 11th ed. Wayne: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2012.
Sieradzki K, Roberts RB, Haber SW, Tomasz A. The development of vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(7):517–23.
Leung KT, Tong MK, Siu YP, Lam CS, Ng HL, Lee HK. Treatment of vancomycin-intermediate Staphylcoccus aureus endocarditis with linezolid. Scand J Infect Dis. 2004;36(6–7):483–5.
Srinivasan A, Dick JD, Perl TM. Vancomycin resistance in staphylococci. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15(3):430–8.
Nandakumar R, Raju G. Isolated tricuspid valve endocarditis in nonaddicted patients: a diagnostic challenge. Am J Med Sci. 1997;314(3):207–12.
Sandre RM, Shafran SD. Infective endocarditis: review of 135 cases over 9 years. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(2):276–86.
Robbins MJ, Frater RW, Soeiro R, Frishman WH, Strom JA. Influence of vegetation size on clinical outcome of right-sided infective endocarditis. Am J Med. 1986;80(2):165–71.
Remetz MS, Quagliarello V. Endovascular infections arising from right-sided heart structures. Cardiol Clin. 1992;10(1):137–49.
Ginzton LE, Siegel RJ, Criley JM. Natural history of tricuspid valve endocarditis: a two dimensional echocardiographic study. Am J Cardiol. 1982;49(8):1853–9.
Celebi G, Aydin M, Akduman D, Turan A, Erdem O, Tor M. Tricuspid endocarditis causing massive pulmonary embolism in a non-addicted patient without any underlying cardiac disease. Scand J Infect Dis. 2004;36(11–12):889–90.
Kim N, Lazar JM, Cunha BA, Liao W, Minnaganti V. Multi-valvular endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2000;6(4):207–12.
Petti CA, Fowler Jr VG. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and endocarditis. Cardiol Clin. 2003;21(2):219–33.
Chambers HF, Miller RT, Newman MD. Right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers: two-week combination therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1988;109(8):619–24.
DiNubile MJ. Short-course antibiotic therapy for right-sided endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in injection drug users. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121(11):873–6.
Torres-Tortosa M, de Cueto M, Vergara A, Sánchez-Porto A, Pérez-Guzmán E, González-Serrano M, Canueto J. Prospective evaluation of a two-week course of intravenous antibiotics in intravenous drug addicts with infective endocarditis. Grupo de Estudio de Enfermedades Infecciosas de la Provincia de Cadiz. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994;13(7):559–64.
Dworkin RJ, Lee BL, Sande MA, Chambers HF. Treatment of right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug users with ciprofloxacin and rifampicin. Lancet. 1989;334(8671):1071–3.
Heldman AW, Hartert TV, Ray SC, Daoud EG, Kowalski TE, Pompili VJ, Sisson SD, Tidmore WC, vom Eigen KA, Goodman SN, Lietman PS, Petty BG, Flexner C. Oral antibiotic treatment of right-sided staphylococcal endocarditis in injection drug users: prospective randomized comparison with parenteral therapy. Am J Med. 1996;101(1):68–76.
Ribera E, Gómez-Jimenez J, Cortes E, del Valle O, Planes A, Gonzalez-Alujas T, Almirante B, Ocaña I, Pahissa A. Effectiveness of cloxacillin with and without gentamicin in short-term therapy for right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125(12):969–74.
Hurbanek J, Jaffer A, Tomford JW, Gordon S, Ghaffari S. A 46-year-old intravenous drug user with fever. Cleve Clin J Med. 2003;70(10):906–8.
Bayer AS, Blomquist IK, Bello E, Chiu CY, Ward JI, Ginzton LE. Tricuspid valve endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus. Correlation of two-dimensional echocardiography with clinical outcome. Chest. 1988;93(2):247–53.
Hecht SR, Berger M. Right-sided endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Prognostic features in 102 episodes. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117(7):560–6.
Rouveix E, Witchitz S, Bouvet E, Friedlander G, Wolff M, Regnier B, Vachon F. Tricuspid infective endocarditis: 56 cases. Eur Heart J. 1984;5(Suppl C):111–5.
Sklaver AR, Hoffman TA, Greenman RL. Staphylococcal endocarditis in addicts. South Med J. 1978;71(6):638–43.
Røder BL, Wandall DA, Espersen F, Frimodt-Møller N, Skinhøj P, Rosdahl VT. Neurologic manifestations in Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a review of 260 bacteremic cases in nondrug addicts. Am J Med. 1997;102(4):379–86.
Heiro M, Nikoskelainen J, Engblom E, Kotilainen E, Marttila R, Kotilainen P. Neurologic manifestations of infective endocarditis: a 17-year experience in a teaching hospital in Finland. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(18):2781–7.
Cosgrove SE, Vigliani GA, Fowler Jr VG, Abrutyn E, Corey GR, Levine DP, Rupp ME, Chambers HF, Karchmer AW, Boucher HW. Initial low-dose gentamicin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and endocarditis is nephrotoxic. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(6):713–21. 229.
Rybak MJ, Lomaestro BM, Rotschafer JC, Moellering RC, Craig WA, Billeter M, Dalovisio JR, Levine DP. Vancomycin therapeutic guidelines: a summary of consensus recommendations from the infectious diseases Society of America, the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(3):325–7.
Whitby M. Fusidic acid in septicaemia and endocarditis. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 1999;12 Suppl 2:S17–22.
Pavie J, Lefort A, Zarrouk V, Chau F, Garry L, Leclercq R, Fantin B. Efficacies of quinupristin-dalfopristin combined with vancomycin in vitro and in experimental endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in relation to cross-resistance to macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramin B- type antibiotics. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46(9):3061–4.
Fantin B, Leclercq R, Ottaviani M, Vallois JM, Maziere B, Duval J, Pocidalo JJ, Carbon C. In vivo activities and penetration of the two components of the streptogramin RP 59500 in cardiac vegetations of experimental endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994;38(3):432–7.
Anwer S, Reefer MC, Evans TG. Quinupristin/dalfopristin for treatment of MRSA endocarditis refractory to conventional therapy. Infect Dis Clin Pract. 1998;7:414–6.
Sgarabotto D, Cusinato R, Narne E, Scano F, Zignol M, Gambino A, Cattelan A, Meneghetti F, Cadrobbi P. Synercid plus vancomycin for the treatment of severe methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci infections: evaluation of 5 cases. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002;34(2):122–6.
Drew RH, Perfect JR, Srinath L, Kurkimilis E, Dowzicky M, Talbot GH. Treatment of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus infections with quinupristin-dalfopristin in patients intolerant of or failing prior therapy. For the Synercid Emergency-Use Study Group. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46(5):775–84.
Dailey CF, Dileto-Fang CL, Buchanan LV, Oramas-Shirey MP, Batts DH, Ford CW, Gibson JK. Efficacy of linezolid in treatment of experimental endocarditis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45(8):2304–8.
Bassetti M, Di Biagio A, Del Bono V, Cenderello G, Bassetti D. Successful treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis with linezolid. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2004;24(1):83–4.
Chiang FY, Climo M. Efficacy of linezolid alone or in combination with vancomycin for treatment of experimental endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(9):3002–4.
Ruiz ME, Guerrero IC, Tuazon CU. Endocarditis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: treatment failure with linezolid. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(8):1018–20.
Potoski BA, Mangino JE, Goff DA. Clinical failures of linezolid and implications for the clinical microbiology laboratory. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8(12):1519–20.
Sperber SJ, Levine JF, Gross PA. Persistent MRSA bacteremia in a patient with low linezolid levels. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(5):675–6.
Tsiodras S, Gold HS, Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Wennersten C, Venkataraman L, Moellering RC, Ferraro MJ. Linezolid resistance in a clinical isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet. 2001;358(9277):207–8.
Wilson P, Andrews JA, Charlesworth R, Walesby R, Singer M, Farrell DJ, Robbins M. Linezolid resistance in clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;51(1):186–8.
Vinh DC, Rubinstein E. Linezolid: a review of safety and tolerability. J Infect. 2009;59 Suppl 1:S59–74.
Cunha BA. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: clinical manifestations and antimicrobial therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005;11 Suppl 4:33–42.
Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Alder J, Eliopoulos CT. Efficacy of daptomycin in experimental endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(5):1714–8.
Cha R, Rybak MJ. Daptomycin against multiple drug-resistant staphylococcus and enterococcus isolates in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model with simulated endocardial vegetations. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;47(3):539–46. 249.
Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, Kaplan SL, Karchmer AW, Levine DP, Murray BE, Rybak JM, Talan DA, Chambers HF, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(3):e18–55.
d’Udekem Y, David TE, Feindel CM, Armstrong S, Sun Z. Long-term results of surgery for active infective endocarditis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1997;11(1):46–52.
Roder BL, Wandall DA, Espersen F, Frimodt-Moller N, Skinhoj P, Rosdahl VT. A study of 47 bacteremic Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis cases: 23 with native valves treated surgically and 24 with prosthetic valves. Scand Cardiovasc J. 1997;31(5):305–9.
Mourvillier B, Trouillet JL, Timsit JF, Baudot J, Chastre J, Régnier B, Gibert C, Wolff M. Infective endocarditis in the intensive care unit: clinical spectrum and prognostic factors in 228 consecutive patients. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30(11):2046–52.
Remadi JP, Najdi G, Brahim A, Coviaux F, Majhoub Y, Tribouilloy C. Superiority of surgical versus medical treatment in patients with Staphylococcus aureus infective endocarditis. Int J Cardiol. 2005;99(2):195–9.
Chu VH, Cabell CH, Abrutyn E, Corey GR, Hoen B, Miro JM, Olaison L, Stryjewski ME, Pappas P, Anstrom KJ, Eykyn S, Habib G, Benito N, Fowler Jr VG, International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database Study Group. Native valve endocarditis due to coagulase-negative staphylococci: report of 99 episodes from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(10):1527–30.
Vinh DC, Embil JM. Device-related infections: a review. J Long Term Eff Med Implants. 2005;15(5):467–88.
Caputo GM, Archer GL, Calderwood SB, DiNubile MJ, Karchmer AW. Native valve endocarditis due to coagulase-negative staphylococci. Clinical and microbiologic features. Am J Med. 1987;83(4):619–25.
Etienne J, Eykyn SJ. Increase in native valve endocarditis caused by coagulase negative staphylococci: an Anglo-French clinical and microbiological study. Br Heart J. 1990;64(6):381–4.
Baddour LM, Phillips TN, Bisno AL. Coagulase-negative staphylococcal endocarditis. Occurrence in patients with mitral valve prolapse. Arch Intern Med. 1986;146(1):119–21.
Zinkernagel AS, Speck RF, Ruef C, Zingg W, Berger-Bachi B, Springer B. Rapidly destructive Staphylococcus epidermidis endocarditis. Infection. 2005;33(3):148–50.
Miele PS, Kogulan PK, Levy CS, Goldstein S, Marcus KA, Smith MA, Rosenthal J, Croxton M, Gill VJ, Lucey DR. Seven cases of surgical native valve endocarditis caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci: an underappreciated disease. Am Heart J. 2001;142(4):571–6.
Pfaller MA, Herwaldt LA. Laboratory, clinical, and epidemiological aspects of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1988;1(3):281–99.
Gill VJ, Manning CB, Ingalls CM. Correlation of penicillin minimum inhibitory concentrations and penicillin zone edge appearance with staphylococcal beta-lactamase production. J Clin Microbiol. 1981;14(4):437–40.
Narayani TV, Shanmugam J, Naseema K, Bhattacharya RN, Shyamkrishnan KG. Correlation between beta-lactamase production and MIC values against penicillin with coagulase negative staphylococci. J Postgrad Med. 1989;35(3):147–51.
Carbon C. MRSA and MRSE: is there an answer? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2000;6 Suppl 2:17–22.
Pierre J, Williamson R, Bornet M, Gutmann L. Presence of an additional penicillin-binding protein in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus hominis, and Staphylococcus simulans with a low affinity for methicillin, cephalothin, and cefamandole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(9):1691–4.
Martineau F, Picard FJ, Lansac N, Ménard C, Roy PH, Ouellette M, Bergeron MG. Correlation between the resistance genotype determined by multiplex PCR assays and the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44(2):231–8.
Brandt CM, Rouse MS, Tallan BM, Laue NW, Wilson WR, Steckelberg JM. Effective treatment of cephalosporin-rifampin combinations against cryptic methicillin-resistant beta-lactamase-producing coagulase-negative staphylococcal experimental endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39(8):1815–9.
Archer GL, Pennell E. Detection of methicillin resistance in staphylococci by using a DNA probe. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(9):1720–4.
Busch-Sørensen C, Frimodt-Møller N, Miller GH, Espersen F. Aminoglycoside resistance among Danish blood culture isolates of coagulase-negative staphylococci. APMIS. 1996;104(12):873–80.
Schmitz FJ, Fluit AC, Gondolf M, Beyrau R, Lindenlauf E, Verhoef J, Heinz HP, Jones ME. The prevalence of aminoglycoside resistance and corresponding resistance genes in clinical isolates of staphylococci from 19 European hospitals. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43(2):253–9.
Enright M, Zawadski P, Pickerill P, Dowson CG. Molecular evolution of rifampicin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microb Drug Resist. 1998;4(1):65–70.
Karchmer AW, Archer GL, Dismukes WE. Staphylococcus epidermidis causing prosthetic valve endocarditis: microbiologic and clinical observations as guides to therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98(4):447–55.
Maniati M, Petinaki E, Kontos, Maniatis AN, Spiliopoulou I, Petropoulou-Mylona D, Malamou-Lada H, Spaliara L, Koutsia-Carouzou C. Rapid increase in numbers of Staphylococcus epidermidis strains with reduced susceptibility to teicoplanin in Greece. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2005;25(4):346–8.
Bertin M, Muller A, Bertrand X, Cornette C, Thouverez M, Talon D. Relationship between glycopeptide use and decreased susceptibility to teicoplanin in isolates of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004;23(5):375–9.
Sloos JH, van de Klundert JA, Dijkshoorn L, van Boven CP. Changing susceptibilities of coagulase-negative staphylococci to teicoplanin in a teaching hospital. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;42(6):787–91.
Adler H, Widmer A, Frei R. Emergence of a teicoplanin-resistant small colony variant of Staphylococcus epidermidis during vancomycin therapy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;22(12):746–8.
Lodise TP, McKinnon PS, Levine DP, Rybak MJ. Predictors of mortality and impact of initial therapy in outcomes in intravenous drug users with Staphylococcus aureus infective endocarditis. Program and abstracts of the 42nd interscience conference on antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy; San Diego; Sept 27–30, 2002. Abstract L-765. 2002.
Cerca N, Martins S, Cerca F, Jefferson KK, Pier GB, Oliveira R, Azeredo J. Comparative assessment of antibiotic susceptibility of coagulase-negative staphylococci in biofilm versus planktonic culture as assessed by bacterial enumeration or rapid XTT colorimetry. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005;56(2):331–6.
O’Hare MD, Felmingham D, Grüneberg RN. The bactericidal activity of vancomycin and teicoplanin against methicillin-resistant strains of coagulase negative Staphylococcus spp. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1989;23(5):800–2.
Raad I, Alrahwan A, Rolston K. Staphylococcus epidermidis: emerging resistance and need for alternative agents. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(5):1182–7.
Biavasco F, Vignaroli C, Varaldo PE. Glycopeptide resistance in coagulase-negative staphylococci. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000;19(6):403–17.
Wong SS, Ho PL, Woo PC, Yuen KY. Bacteremia caused by staphylococci with inducible vancomycin heteroresistance. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29(4):760–7.
Sieradzki K, Villari P, Tomasz A. Decreased susceptibilities to teicoplanin and vancomycin among coagulase-negative methicillin-resistant clinical isolates of staphylococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42(1):100–7.
Del’ Alamo L, Cereda RF, Tosin I, Miranda EA, Sader HS. Antimicrobial susceptibility of coagulase-negative staphylococci and characterization of isolates with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;34(3):185–91.
John MA, Pletch C, Hussain Z. In vitro activity of quinupristin/dalfopristin, linezolid, telithromycin and comparator antimicrobial agents against 13 species of coagulase-negative staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;50(6):933–8.
Jones RN, Ballow CH, Biedenbach DJ, Deinhart JA, Schentag JJ. Antimicrobial activity of quinupristin-dalfopristin (RP 59500, Synercid) tested against over 28,000 recent clinical isolates from 200 medical centers in the United States and Canada. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998;31(3):437–51.
Fantin B, Leclercq R, Merlé Y, Saint-Julien L, Veyrat C, Duval J, Carbon C. Critical influence of resistance to streptogramin B-type antibiotics on activity of RP 59500 (quinupristin-dalfopristin) in experimental endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39(2):400–5.
Sander A, Beiderlinden M, Schmid EN, Peters J. Clinical experience with quinupristin-dalfopristin as rescue treatment of critically ill patients infected with methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(8):1157–60.
Bearden DT. Clinical pharmacokinetics of quinupristin/dalfopristin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2004;43(4):239–52.
Luh KT, Hsueh PR, Teng LJ, Pan HJ, Chen YC, Lu JJ, Wu JJ, Ho SW. Quinupristin-dalfopristin resistance among gram-positive bacteria in Taiwan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44(12):3374–80.
French G. Safety and tolerability of linezolid. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;51 Suppl 2:45–53.
Gerson SL, Kaplan SL, Bruss JB, Le V, Arellano FM, Hafkin B, Kuter DJ. Hematologic effects of linezolid: summary of clinical experience. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46(8):2723–6.
Spellberg B, Yoo T, Bayer AS. Reversal of linezolid-associated cytopenias, but not peripheral neuropathy, by administration of vitamin B6. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54(4):832–5.
Deng J, Su LX, Liang ZX, Liang LL, Yan P, Jia YH, Zhang XG, Feng D, Xie LX. Effects of vitamin b6 therapy for sepsis patients with linezolid-associated cytopenias: a retrospective study. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 2013;74:26–32.
Kennedy S, Chambers HF. Daptomycin (LY146032) for prevention and treatment of experimental aortic valve endocarditis in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989;33(9):1522–5.
Michiels MJ, Bergeron MG. Differential increased survival of staphylococci and limited ultrastructural changes in the core of infected fibrin clots after daptomycin administration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40(1):203–11.
Carugati M, Bayer AS, Miró JM, Park LP, Guimarães AC, Skoutelis A, Fortes CQ, Durante-Mangoni E, Hannan MM, Nacinovich F, Fernández-Hidalgo N, Grossi P, Tan RS, Holland T, Fowler Jr VG, Corey RG, Chu VH, International Collaboration on Endocarditis. High-dose daptomycin therapy for left-sided infective endocarditis: a prospective study from the international collaboration on endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(12):6213–22.
Gander S, Kinnaird A, Finch R. Telavancin: in vitro activity against staphylococci in a biofilm model. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005;56(2):337–43.
Freney J, Brun Y, Bes M, Meugnier H, Grimont F, Grimont PAD, Nervi C, Fleurette J. Staphylococcus lugdunensis sp. nov. and Staphylococcus schleiferi sp. nov., two species from human clinical specimens. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1988;38:168–72.
Herchline TE, Ayers LW. Occurrence of Staphylococcus lugdunensis in consecutive clinical cultures and relationship of isolation to infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29(3):419–21.
Seenivasan MH, Yu VL. Staphylococcus lugdunensis endocarditis – the hidden peril of coagulase-negative staphylococcus in blood cultures. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;22(8):489–91.
Fleurette J, Bès M, Brun Y, Freney J, Forey F, Coulet M, Reverdy ME, Etienne J. Clinical isolates of Staphylococcus lugdunensis and S. schleiferi: bacteriological characteristics and susceptibility to antimicrobial agents. Res Microbiol. 1989;140(2):107–18.
Van Hoovels L, De Munter P, Colaert J, Surmont I, Van Wijngaerden E, Peetermans WE, Verhaegen J. Three cases of destructive native valve endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus lugdunensis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24(2):149–52.
Herchline TE, Barnishan J, Ayers LW, Fass RJ. Penicillinase production and in vitro susceptibilities of Staphylococcus lugdunensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(12):2434–5.
Jones RM, Jackson MA, Ong C, Lofland GK. Endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus lugdunensis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2002;21(3):265–8.
Paterson DL, Nuttall N. Serious infections due to Staphylococcus lugdunensis. Aust N Z J Med. 1997;27(5):591.
Vandenesch F, Etienne J, Reverdy ME, Eykyn SJ. Endocarditis due to Staphylococcus lugdunensis: report of 11 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(5):871–6.
Dan M, Marien GJ, Goldsand G. Endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus warneri on a normal aortic valve following vasectomy. Can Med Assoc J. 1984;131(3):211–3.
Wood CA. Significant infection caused by Staphylococcus warneri. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(8):2216–7.
Stöllberger C, Wechsler-Fördös A, Geppert F, Gulz W, Brownstone E, Nicolakis M, Finsterer J. Staphylococcus warneri endocarditis after implantation of a lumbar disc prosthesis in an immunocompetent patient. J Infect. 2005;52:e15.
Sandoe JA, Kerr KG, Reynolds GW, Jain S. Staphylococcus capitis endocarditis: two cases and review of the literature. Heart. 1999;82(3):e1–3.
Garduño E, Márquez I, Beteta A, Said I, Blanco J, Pineda T. Staphylococcus saprophyticus causing native valve endocarditis. Scand J Infect Dis. 2005;37(9):690–1.
Singh VR, Raad I. Fatal Staphylococcus saprophyticus native valve endocarditis in an intravenous drug addict. J Infect Dis. 1990;162(3):783–4.
Kloos WE, Schleifer KH. Isolation and characterization of staphylococci from human skin. II. Descriptions of four new species: Staphylococcus warneri, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus hominis, and Staphylococcus simulans. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1975;25:62–79.
Geraci JE, Wilson WR. Symposium on infective endocarditis. III. Endocarditis due to gram-negative bacteria. Report of 56 cases. Mayo Clin Proc. 1982;57(3):145–8.
Anderson MJ, Janoff EN. Klebsiella endocarditis: report of two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(2):468–74.
Branger S, Casalta JP, Habib G, Collard F, Raoult D. Escherichia coli endocarditis: seven new cases in adults and review of the literature. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24:537.
Watanakunakorn C, Kim J. Mitral valve endocarditis caused by a serum-resistant strain of Escherichia coli. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;14(2):501–5.
Fernández Guerrero ML, Aguado JM, Arribas A, Lumbreras C, de Gorgolas M. The spectrum of cardiovascular infections due to Salmonella enterica: a review of clinical features and factors determining outcome. Medicine (Baltimore). 2004;83(2):123–38.
Tindall BJ, Grimont PA, Garrity GM, Euzéby JP. Nomenclature and taxonomy of the genus Salmonella. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2005;55(Pt 1):521–4.
Huang DB, DuPont HL. Problem pathogens: extra-intestinal complications of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(6):341–8.
Bestetti RB, Figueiredo JF, Da Costa JC. Salmonella tricuspid endocarditis in an intravenous drug abuser with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Cardiol. 1991;30(3):361–2.
Khan GQ, Kadri SM, Hassan G, Shahid IT, Gazanfar A, Kak M, Showkat H. Salmonella typhi endocarditis: a case report. J Clin Pathol. 2003;56(10):801–2.
Cohen JI, Bartlett JA, Corey GR. Extra-intestinal manifestations of salmonella infections. Medicine (Baltimore). 1987;66(5):349–88.
Tassios PT, Vatopoulos AC, Mainas E, Gennimata D, Papadakis J, Tsiftsoglou A, Kalapothaki V, Legakis NJ. Molecular analysis of ampicillin-resistant sporadic Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi B clinical isolates. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1997;3(3):317–23.
Fernández Guerrero ML, Torres Perea R, Verdejo Morcillo C, Fernández Roblas R, de Górgolas M. Treatment of experimental endocarditis due to ampicillin-susceptible or ampicillin-resistant Salmonella enteritidis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40(7):1589–93.
Cherubin CE, Eng RH, Smith SM, Goldstein EJ. Cephalosporin therapy for salmonellosis. Questions of efficacy and cross resistance with ampicillin. Arch Intern Med. 1986;146(11):2149–52.
Hohmann EL. Nontyphoidal salmonellosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(2):263–9.
Hsu RB, Lin FY, Chen RJ, Hsueh PR, Wang SS. Antimicrobial drug resistance in salmonella-infected aortic aneurysms. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;80(2):530–6.
du Plessis JP, Govendrageloo K, Levin SE. Right-sided endocarditis due to Salmonella typhi. Pediatr Cardiol. 1997;18(6):443–4.
Alvarez-Elcoro S, Soto-Ramirez L, Mateos-Mora M. Salmonella bacteremia in patients with prosthetic heart valves. Am J Med. 1984;77(1):61–3.
Angulo FJ, Johnson KR, Tauxe RV, Cohen ML. Origins and consequences of antimicrobial-resistant nontyphoidal Salmonella: implications for the use of fluoroquinolones in food animals. Microb Drug Resist. 2000;6(1):77–83.
Su LH, Chiu CH, Chu C, Ou JT. Antimicrobial resistance in nontyphoid Salmonella serotypes: a global challenge. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(4):546–51.
Chiu CH, Su LH, Chu C. Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis: epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical disease, and treatment. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(2):311–22.
Cohen PS, O’Brien TF, Schoenbaum SC, Medeiros AA. The risk of endothelial infection in adults with salmonella bacteremia. Ann Intern Med. 1978;89(6):931–2.
Soravia-Dunand VA, Loo VG, Salit IE. Aortitis due to Salmonella: report of 10 cases and comprehensive review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29(4):862–8.
Oskoui R, Davis WA, Gomes MN. Salmonella aortitis. A report of a successfully treated case with a comprehensive review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153(4):517–25.
Müller BT, Wegener OR, Grabitz K, Pillny M, Thomas L, Sandmann W. Mycotic aneurysms of the thoracic and abdominal aorta and iliac arteries: experience with anatomic and extra-anatomic repair in 33 cases. J Vasc Surg. 2001;33(1):106–13.
Shekar R, Rice TW, Zierdt CH, Kallick CA. Outbreak of endocarditis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa serotype O11 among pentazocine and tripelennamine abusers in Chicago. J Infect Dis. 1985;151(2):203–8.
Bicanic TA, Eykyn SJ. Hospital-acquired, native valve endocarditis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Infect. 2002;44(2):137–9.
Jimenez-Lucho VE, Saravolatz LD, Medeiros AA, Pohlod D. Failure of therapy in pseudomonas endocarditis: selection of resistant mutants. J Infect Dis. 1986;154(1):64–8.
Reyes MP, Lerner AM. Current problems in the treatment of infective endocarditis due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Rev Infect Dis. 1983;5(2):314–21.
Gavin PJ, Suseno MT, Cook FV, Peterson LR, Thomson Jr RB. Left-sided endocarditis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa: successful treatment with meropenem and tobramycin. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;47(2):427–30.
Komshian SV, Tablan OC, Palutke W, Reyes MP. Characteristics of left-sided endocarditis due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the Detroit Medical Center. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12(4):693–702.
Jones RN, Kirby JT, Beach ML, Biedenbach DJ, Pfaller MA. Geographic variations in activity of broad-spectrum beta-lactams against Pseudomonas aeruginosa: summary of the worldwide SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997–2000). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;43(3):239–43.
Safdar N, Handelsman J, Maki DG. Does combination antimicrobial therapy reduce mortality in Gram-negative bacteraemia? A meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4(8):519–27.
Bisharat N, Goldstein L, Raz R, Elias M. Gram-negative anaerobic endocarditis: two case reports and review of the literature. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20(9):651–4.
Brook I. Endocarditis due to anaerobic bacteria. Cardiology. 2002;98(1–2):1–5.
Falagas ME, Siakavellas E. Bacteroides, Prevotella, and Porphyromonas species: a review of antibiotic resistance and therapeutic options. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2000;15(1):1–9.
Weber G, Borer A, Riesenberg K, Schlaeffer F. Infective endocarditis due to Fusobacterium nucleatum in an intravenous drug abuser. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;18(9):655–7.
Moreira AL, Haslett PA, Symmans WF. Propionibacterium acnes as the cause of endocarditis in a liver transplant recipient. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(1):224–6.
Mohsen AH, Price A, Ridgway E, West JN, Green S, McKendrick MW. Propionibacterium acnes endocarditis in a native valve complicated by intraventricular abscess: a case report and review. Scand J Infect Dis. 2001;33(5):379–80.
Lazar JM, Schulman DS. Propionibacterium acnes prosthetic valve endocarditis: a case of severe aortic insufficiency. Clin Cardiol. 1992;15(4):299–300.
Funke G, von Graevenitz A, Clarridge 3rd JE, Bernard KA. Clinical microbiology of coryneform bacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997;10(1):125–59.
Benjamin Jr DK, Miro JM, Hoen B, Steinbach WJ, Fowler Jr VG, Olaison L, Habib G, Abrutyn E, Perfect J, Zass A, Corey GR, Eykyn S, Thuny F, Jiménez-Expósito MJ, Cabell CH, ICE-MD Study Group. Candida endocarditis: contemporary cases from the International Collaboration of Infectious Endocarditis Merged Database (ICE-mD). Scand J Infect Dis. 2004;36(6–7):453–5.
Ellis ME, Al-Abdely H, Sandridge A, Greer W, Ventura W. Fungal endocarditis: evidence in the world literature, 1965–1995. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(1):50–62.
Blanc V, Lavarde V, Thanh NT, Quang Tri HH, Guillemain R, Amrein C, Carpentier A. Postoperative Cryptococcus neoformans endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1996;2(1):66–9.
Banerjee U, Gupta K, Venugopal P. A case of prosthetic valve endocarditis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans. J Med Vet Mycol. 1997;35(2):139–41.
Boden WE, Fisher A, Medeiros A, Benham I, McEnany MT. Bioprosthetic endocarditis due to Cryptococcus neoformans. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). 1983;24(2):164–6.
Muehrcke DD, Lytle BW, Cosgrove 3rd DM. Surgical and long-term antifungal therapy for fungal prosthetic valve endocarditis. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995;60(3):538–43.
Marier R, Zakhireh B, Downs J, Wynne B, Hammond GL, Andriole VT. Trichosporon cutaneum endocarditis. Scand J Infect Dis. 1978;10(3):225–6.
Reyes CV, Stanley MM, Rippon JW. Trichosporon beigelii endocarditis as a complication of peritoneovenous shunt. Hum Pathol. 1985;16(8):857–9.
Ramos JM, Cuenca-Estrella M, Gutierrez F, Elia M, Rodriguez-Tudela JL. Clinical case of endocarditis due to Trichosporon inkin and antifungal susceptibility profile of the organism. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42(5):2341–4.
Mooty MY, Kanj SS, Obeid MY, Hassan GY, Araj GF. A case of Trichosporon beigelii endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20(2):139–42.
Maeder M, Vogt PR, Schaer G, von Graevenitz A, Günthard HF. Aortic homograft endocarditis caused by Rhodotorula mucilaginosa. Infection. 2003;31(3):181–3.
Naveh Y, Friedman A, Merzbach D, Hashman N. Endocarditis caused by Rhodotorula successfully treated with 5-fluorocytosine. Br Heart J. 1975;37(1):101–4.
Bhatti S, Vilenski L, Tight R, Smego Jr RA. Histoplasma endocarditis: clinical and mycologic features and outcomes. J Infect. 2005;51(1):2–9.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility testing of yeasts, Approved standard M27-A3(28). 3rd ed. Wayne: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2008.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Method for antifungal disk diffusion susceptibility testing of yeasts, Approved guideline M44-A2. 2nd ed. Wayne: Laboratory Standards Institute; 2009.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility testing of filamentous fungi. Wayne: Laboratory Standards Institute; 2008.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility testing of yeasts; 4th informational supplement M27–54. Wayne: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2012.
De Pauw BE. New antifungal agents and preparations. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2000;16(2):147–50.
Ellis D. Amphotericin B: spectrum and resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;49 Suppl 1:7–10.
Masiá Canuto M, Gutiérrez Rodero F. Antifungal drug resistance to azoles and polyenes. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002;2(9):550–63.
Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD, Filler SG, Pappas PG, Dismukes WE, Edwards JE. Practice guidelines for the treatment of candidiasis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(4):662–78.
Dupont B. Overview of the lipid formulations of amphotericin B. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;49 Suppl 1:31–6.
Wingard JR, Kubilis P, Lee L, Yee G, White M, Walshe L, Bowden R, Anaissie E, Hiemenz J, Lister J. Clinical significance of nephrotoxicity in patients treated with amphotericin B for suspected or proven aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29(6):1402–7.
Wong-Beringer A, Jacobs RA, Guglielmo BJ. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B: clinical efficacy and toxicities. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27(3):603–18.
Linden P, Williams P, Chan KM. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B lipid complex injection (ABLC) in solid-organ transplant recipients with invasive fungal infections. Clin Transplant. 2000;14(4 Pt 1):329–39.
Wiley JM, Seibel NL, Walsh TJ. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B lipid complex in 548 children and adolescents with invasive fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24(2):167–74.
Wingard JR. Efficacy of amphotericin B lipid complex injection (ABLC) in bone marrow transplant recipients with life-threatening systemic mycoses. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1997;19(4):343–7.
Walsh TJ, Hiemenz JW, Seibel NL, Perfect JR, Horwith G, Lee L, Silber JL, DiNubile MJ, Reboli A, Bow E, Lister J, Anaissie EJ. Amphotericin B lipid complex for invasive fungal infections: analysis of safety and efficacy in 556 cases. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(6):1383–96.
Groll AH, Giri N, Petraitis V, Petraitiene R, Candelario M, Bacher JS, Piscitelli SC, Walsh TJ. Comparative efficacy and distribution of lipid formulations of amphotericin B in experimental Candida albicans infection of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis. 2000;182(1):274–82.
Rubinstein E. Amphotericin B, and 5-fluorocytosine penetration into blood and fibrin clots. Chemotherapy. 1979;25(5):249–53.
Rubinstein E, Noriega ER, Simberkoff MS, Rahal Jr JJ. Tissue penetration of amphotericin B in Candida endocarditis. Chest. 1974;66(4):376–7.
Arikan S, Rex JH. Nystatin LF (Aronex/Abbott). Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2001;2(4):488–95.
Offner F, Krcmery V, Boogaerts M, Doyen C, Engelhard D, Ribaud P, Cordonnier C, de Pauw B, Durrant S, Marie JP, Moreau P, Guiot H, Samonis G, Sylvester R, Herbrecht R, EORTC Invasive Fungal Infections Group. Liposomal nystatin in patients with invasive aspergillosis refractory to or intolerant of amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(12):4808–12.
Van den Bossche H, Willemsens G, Cools W, Marichal P, Lauwers W. Hypothesis on the molecular basis of the antifungal activity of N-substituted imidazoles and triazoles. Biochem Soc Trans. 1983;11(6):665–7.
Vanden Bossche H, Bellens D, Cools W, Gorrens J, Marichal P, Verhoeven H, Willemsens G, De Coster R, Beeren D, Haelterman C, Coene M-C, Lauwers W, le Jeune L. Cytochrome P-450: target for itraconazole. Drug Dev Res. 1986;8(1–4):287–98.
Maertens JA. History of the development of azole derivatives. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10 Suppl 1:1–10.
Brammer KW, Farrow PR, Faulkner JK. Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of fluconazole in humans. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12 Suppl 3:S318–26.
Nettles RE, Nichols LS, Bell-McGuinn K, Pipeling MR, Scheel Jr PJ, Merz WG. Successful treatment of Trichosporon mucoides infection with fluconazole in a heart and kidney transplant recipient. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(4):E63–6.
Pappas PG, Rex JH, Sobel JD, Filler SG, Dismukes WE, Walsh TJ, Edwards JE, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(2):161–89.
Groll AH, Gea-Banacloche JC, Glasmacher A, Just-Nuebling G, Maschmeyer G, Walsh TJ. Clinical pharmacology of antifungal compounds. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2003;17(1):159–91.
Longman LP, Hibbert SA, Martin MV. Efficacy of fluconazole in prophylaxis and treatment of experimental Candida endocarditis. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12 Suppl 3:S294–8.
Arndt CA, Walsh TJ, McCully CL, Balis FM, Pizzo PA, Poplack DG. Fluconazole penetration into cerebrospinal fluid: implications for treating fungal infections of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis. 1988;157(1):178–80.
Duswald KH, Penk A, Pittrow L. High-dose therapy with fluconazole > or = 800 mg day-1. Mycoses. 1997;40(7–8):267–77.
Piérard GE, Arrese JE, Piérard-Franchimont C. Itraconazole. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2000;1(2):287–304.
Marr KA, Crippa F, Leisenring W, Hoyle M, Boeckh M, Balajee SA, Nichols WG, Musher B, Corey L. Itraconazole versus fluconazole for prevention of fungal infections in patients receiving allogeneic stem cell transplants. Blood. 2004;103(4):1527–33.
Winston DJ, Maziarz RT, Chandrasekar PH, Lazarus HM, Goldman M, Blumer JL, Leitz GJ, Territo MC. Intravenous and oral itraconazole versus intravenous and oral fluconazole for long-term antifungal prophylaxis in allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplant recipients. A multicenter, randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138(9):705–13.
Donnelly JP, De Pauw BE. Voriconazole-a new therapeutic agent with an extended spectrum of antifungal activity. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10 Suppl 1:107–17.
Perea JR, Díaz De Rada BS, Quetglas EG, Juarez MJ. Oral versus intravenous therapy in the treatment of systemic mycosis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10 Suppl 1:96–106.
Lutsar I, Roffey S, Troke P. Voriconazole concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue of guinea pigs and immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(5):728–32.
Schwartz S, Milatovic D, Thiel E. Successful treatment of cerebral aspergillosis with a novel triazole (voriconazole) in a patient with acute leukaemia. Br J Haematol. 1997;97(3):663–5.
Mikulska M, Novelli A, Aversa F, Cesaro S, de Rosa FG, Girmenia C, Micozzi A, Sanguinetti M, Viscoli C. Voriconazole in clinical practice. J Chemother. 2012;24(6):311–27.
Baddley JW, Pappas PG. Antifungal combination therapy: clinical potential. Drugs. 2005;65(11):1461–80.
Jessup CJ, Ryder NS, Ghannoum MA. An evaluation of the in vitro activity of terbinafine. Med Mycol. 2000;38(2):155–9.
Schiraldi GF, Cicero SL, Colombo MD, Rossato D, Ferrarese M, Soresi E. Refractory pulmonary aspergillosis: compassionate trial with terbinafine. Br J Dermatol. 1996;134 Suppl 46:25–9.
Moore CB, Walls CM, Denning DW. In vitro activities of terbinafine against Aspergillus species in comparison with those of itraconazole and amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45(6):1882–5.
Ryder NS, Leitner I. Synergistic interaction of terbinafine with triazoles or amphotericin B against Aspergillus species. Med Mycol. 2001;39(1):91–5.
Mosquera J, Sharp A, Moore CB, Warn PA, Denning DW. In vitro interaction of terbinafine with itraconazole, fluconazole, amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine against Aspergillus spp. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;50(2):189–94.
Marr K. Combination antifungal therapy: where are we now, and where are we going? Oncology (Williston Park). 2004;18(13 Suppl 7):24–9.
Hauser M, Hess J, Belohradsky BH. Treatment of Candida albicans endocarditis: case report and a review. Infection. 2003;31(2):125–7.
Louie A, Liu W, Miller DA, Sucke AC, Liu QF, Drusano GL, Mayers M, Miller MH. Efficacies of high-dose fluconazole plus amphotericin B and high-dose fluconazole plus 5-fluorocytosine versus amphotericin B, fluconazole, and 5-fluorocytosine monotherapies in treatment of experimental endocarditis, endophthalmitis, and pyelonephritis due to Candida albicans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43(12):2831–40.
Girmenia C, Venditti M, Martino P. Fluconazole in combination with flucytosine in the treatment of fluconazole-resistant Candida infections. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;46(3):227–31.
Scheven M, Jünemann K, Schramm H, Hühn W. Successful treatment of a Candida albicans sepsis with a combination of flucytosine and fluconazole. Mycoses. 1992;35(11–12):315–6.
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, Jones RN. In vitro activities of caspofungin compared with those of fluconazole and itraconazole against 3,959 clinical isolates of Candida spp., including 157 fluconazole-resistant isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(3):1068–71.
Jiménez-Expósito MJ, Torres G, Baraldés A, Benito N, Marco F, Paré JC, Moreno A, Claramonte X, Mestres CA, Almela M, García de la María C, Pérez N, Schell WA, Corey GR, Perfect J, Jiménez de Anta MT, Gatell JM, Miró JM. Native valve endocarditis due to Candida glabrata treated without valvular replacement: a potential role for caspofungin in the induction and maintenance treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(7):e70–3.
Rajendram R, Alp NJ, Mitchell AR, Bowler IC, Forfar JC. Candida prosthetic valve endocarditis cured by caspofungin therapy without valve replacement. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(9):e72–4.
Nevado J, De Alarcón A, Hernández A. Caspofungin: a new therapeutic option for fungal endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005;11(3):248.
Chopra T, Bhargava A, Kumar S, Chopra A, Dhar S, Afonso L, Sobel JD. Candida kefyr endocarditis in a patient with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. Am J Med Sci. 2010;339(2):188–9.
Kirkpatrick WR, Perea S, Coco BJ, Patterson TF. Efficacy of caspofungin alone and in combination with voriconazole in a Guinea pig model of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46(8):2564–8.
Hajdu R, Thompson R, Sundelof JG, Pelak BA, Bouffard FA, Dropinski JF, Kropp H. Preliminary animal pharmacokinetics of the parenteral antifungal agent MK-0991 (L-743,872). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41(11):2339–44.
Prabhu RM, Orenstein R. Failure of caspofungin to treat brain abscesses secondary to Candida albicans prosthetic valve endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(8):1253–4.
Pierrotti LC, Baddour LM. Fungal endocarditis, 1995–2000. Chest. 2002;122(1):302–10.
Rubinstein E, Lang R. Fungal endocarditis. Eur Heart J. 1995;16(Suppl B):84–9.
Baddley JW, Benjamin Jr DK, Patel M, Miró J, Athan E, Barsic B, Bouza E, Clara L, Elliott T, Kanafani Z, Klein J, Lerakis S, Levine D, Spelman D, Rubinstein E, Tornos P, Morris AJ, Pappas P, Fowler Jr VG, Chu VH, Cabell C, International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study Group (ICE-PCS). Candida infective endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;27(7):519–29.
Falcone M, Barzaghi N, Carosi G, Grossi P, Minoli L, Ravasio V, Rizzi M, Suter F, Utili R, Viscoli C, Venditti M, Italian Study on Endocarditis. Candida infective endocarditis: report of 15 cases from a prospective multicenter study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2009;88(3):160–8. 429.
Nadir E, Rubinstein E. Fungal endocarditis. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2004;6(4):276–82.
Utley JR, Mills J, Roe BB. The role of valve replacement in the treatment of fungal endocarditis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1975;69(2):255–8.
Rex JH, Bennett JE, Sugar AM, Pappas PG, van der Horst CM, Edwards JE, Washburn RG, Scheld WM, Karchmer AW, Dine AP, et al. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(20):1325–30.
Rex JH, Pappas PG, Karchmer AW, Sobel J, Edwards JE, Hadley S, Brass C, Vazquez JA, Chapman SW, Horowitz HW, Zervos M, McKinsey D, Lee J, Babinchak T, Bradsher RW, Cleary JD, Cohen DM, Danziger L, Goldman M, Goodman J, Hilton E, Hyslop NE, Kett DH, Lutz J, Rubin RH, Scheld WM, Schuster M, Simmons B, Stein DK, Washburn RG, Mautner L, Chu TC, Panzer H, Rosenstein RB, Booth J, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. A randomized and blinded multicenter trial of high-dose fluconazole plus placebo versus fluconazole plus amphotericin B as therapy for candidemia and its consequences in nonneutropenic subjects. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(10):1221–8.
Wells CJ, Leech GJ, Lever AM, Wansbrough-Jones MH. Treatment of native valve Candida endocarditis with fluconazole. J Infect. 1995;31(3):233–5.
Martino P, Meloni G, Cassone A. Candidal endocarditis and treatment with fluconazole and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112(12):966–7.
Westling K, Thalme A, Julander I. Candida albicans tricuspid valve endocarditis in an intravenous drug addict: successful treatment with fluconazole. Scand J Infect Dis. 2005;37(4):310–1.
Melgar GR, Nasser RM, Gordon SM, Lytle BW, Keys TF, Longworth DL. Fungal prosthetic valve endocarditis in 16 patients. An 11-year experience in a tertiary care hospital. Medicine (Baltimore). 1997;76(2):94–103.
Johnston PG, Lee J, Domanski M, Dressler F, Tucker E, Rothenberg M, Cunnion RE, Pizzo PA, Walsh TJ. Late recurrent Candida endocarditis. Chest. 1991;99(6):1531–3.
Mrówczyński W, Wojtalik M. Caspofungin for Candida endocarditis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23(4):376.
Gumbo T, Taege AJ, Mawhorter S, McHenry MC, Lytle BH, Cosgrove DM, Gordon SM. Aspergillus valve endocarditis in patients without prior cardiac surgery. Medicine (Baltimore). 2000;79(4):261–8.
Xie L, Gebre W, Szabo K, Lin JH. Cardiac aspergillosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a case report and review of the literature. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2005;129(4):511–5.
El-Hamamsy I, Dürrleman N, Stevens LM, Perrault LP, Carrier M. Aspergillus endocarditis after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;1:359–64.
Friedman AH, Chishti MI, Henkind P. Endogenous ocular aspergillosis. Ophthalmologica. 1974;168(3):197–205.
Irles D, Bonadona A, Pofelski J, Laramas M, Molina L, Lantuejoul S, Brenier-Pinchart MP, Bagueta JP, Barnoud D. Aspergillus flavus endocarditis on a native valve. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss. 2004;97(2):172–5.
Hope WW, Walsh TJ, Denning DW. The invasive and saprophytic syndromes due to Aspergillus spp. Med Mycol. 2005;43 Suppl 1:S207–38.
Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, Morrison VA, Dummer S, Denning DW, Bennett JE, Walsh TJ, Patterson TF, Pankey GA. Practice guidelines for diseases caused by Aspergillus. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(4):696–709.
Denning DW. Invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(4):781–803.
Kappe R, Schulze-Berge A, Sonntag HG. Evaluation of eight antibody tests and one antigen test for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Mycoses. 1996;39(1–2):13–23.
Marr KA, Balajee SA, McLaughlin L, Tabouret M, Bentsen C, Walsh TJ. Detection of galactomannan antigenemia by enzyme immunoassay for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: variables that affect performance. J Infect Dis. 2004;190(3):641–9.
Alexander BD. Diagnosis of fungal infection: new technologies for the mycology laboratory. Transpl Infect Dis. 2002;4 Suppl 3:32–7.
Rivière S, Lortholary O, Michon J, Bougnoux ME, Mainardi JL, Sendid B, Bretagne S, Lefort A. Aspergillus endocarditis in the era of new antifungals: major role for antigen detection. J Infect. 2013;67(1):85–8.
Rubinstein E, Noriega ER, Simberkoff MS, Holzman R, Rahal Jr JJ. Fungal endocarditis: analysis of 24 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1975;54(4):331–4.
Hosking MC, MacDonald NE, Cornel G. Liposomal amphotericin B for postoperative Aspergillus fumigatus endocarditis. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995;59(4):1015–7.
Mateos-Colino A, Golpe R, González-Rodríguez A, González-Juanatey C, Legarra JJ, Blanco M. Aspergillus pacemaker endocarditis presenting as pulmonary embolism. Respirology. 2005;10(3):396–8.
Rao K, Saha V. Medical management of Aspergillus flavus endocarditis. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2000;17(5):425–7.
Kennedy HF, Simpson EM, Wilson N, Richardson MD, Michie JR. Aspergillus flavus endocarditis in a child with neuroblastoma. J Infect. 1998;36(1):126–7.
Longman LP, Martin MV. A comparison of the efficacy of itraconazole, amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine in the treatment of Aspergillus fumigatus endocarditis in the rabbit. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1987;20(5):719–24.
Denning DW, Stevens DA. Antifungal and surgical treatment of invasive aspergillosis: review of 2,121 published cases. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12(6):1147–201.
Imhof A, Balajee SA, Fredricks DN, Englund JA, Marr KA. Breakthrough fungal infections in stem cell transplant recipients receiving voriconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(5):743–6.
Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, Bennett JE, Greene RE, Oestmann JW, Kern WV, Marr KA, Ribaud P, Lortholary O, Sylvester R, Rubin RH, Wingard JR, Stark P, Durand C, Caillot D, Thiel E, Chandrasekar PH, Hodges MR, Schlamm HT, Troke PF, de Pauw B, Invasive Fungal Infections Group of the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer and the Global Aspergillus Study Group. Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(6):408–15.
Reis LJ, Barton TD, Pochettino A, Velazquez O, McGarvey M, Milas B, Reboli A, Schuster MG. Successful treatment of Aspergillus prosthetic valve endocarditis with oral voriconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(5):752–3.
Martin MV, Yates J, Hitchcock CA. Comparison of voriconazole (UK-109,496) and itraconazole in prevention and treatment of Aspergillus fumigatus endocarditis in guinea pigs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41(1):13–6.
Walsh TJ, Hutchins GM. Aspergillus mural endocarditis. Am J Clin Pathol. 1979;71(6):640–4.
Lim ML, Oliver DH, Barasch E. Aspergillus mural vegetation identified by transesophageal echocardiography. Echocardiography. 1997;14(3):283–6.
Mullen P, Jude C, Borkon M, Porterfield J, Walsh TJ. Aspergillus mural endocarditis. Clinical and echocardiographic diagnosis. Chest. 1986;90(3):451–2.
Wheat LJ, Goldman M, Sarosi G. State-of-the-art review of pulmonary fungal infections. Semin Respir Infect. 2002;17(2):158–81.
Leznoff A, Frank H, Taussig A, Brandt JL. The focal distribution of histoplasmosis in Montreal. Can J Public Health. 1969;60(8):321–5.
MacEachern EJ, McDonald JC. Histoplasmin sensitivity in McGill University students. Can J Public Health. 1971;62(5):415–22.
Jessamine AG, Macbeth ME, Davies JW. Histoplasmosis in eastern Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1966;57(1):18–24.
Wheat LJ, Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2003;17(1):1–19.
Merz WG, Kodsy S, Merz CS. Recovery of Histoplasma capsulatum from blood in a commercial radiometric Mycobacterium medium. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(1):237–9.
Kanawaty DS, Stalker MJ, Munt PW. Nonsurgical treatment of Histoplasma endocarditis involving a bioprosthetic valve. Chest. 1991;99(1):253–6. 473.
Riddell 4th J, Kauffman CA, Smith JA, Assi M, Blue S, Buitrago MI, Deresinski S, Wright PW, Drevets DA, Norris SA, Vikram HR, Carson PJ, Vergidis P, Carpenter J, Seidenfeld SM, Wheat LJ. Histoplasma capsulatum endocarditis: multicenter case series with review of current diagnostic techniques and treatment. Medicine (Baltimore). 2014;93(5):186–93.
Fisher MC, Koenig GL, White TJ, Taylor JW. Molecular and phenotypic description of Coccidioides posadasii sp. nov., previously recognized as the non-California population of Coccidioides immitis. Mycologia. 2002;94:73–84.
Reuss CS, Hall MC, Blair JE, Yeo T, Leslie KO. Endocarditis caused by Coccidioides species. Mayo Clin Proc. 2004;79(11):1451–4.
Chakrabarti J. Diagnostic evaluation of myocardial abscesses. A new look at an old problem. Int J Cardiol. 1995;52(3):189–96.
Kearney RA, Eisen HJ, Wolf JE. Nonvalvular infections of the cardiovascular system. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121(3):219–30.
Weisz S, Young DG. Myocardial abscess complicating healed myocardial infarction. CMAJ. 1977;116(10):1156–8.
Delahaye F, Célard M, Roth O, de Gevigney G. Indications and optimal timing for surgery in infective endocarditis. Heart. 2004;90(6):618–20.
Chan KL. Early clinical course and long-term outcome of patients with infective endocarditis complicated by perivalvular abscess. CMAJ. 2002;167(1):19–24.
Moon MR, Stinson EB, Miller DC. Surgical treatment of endocarditis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1997;40(3):239–64.
Morris AJ, Drinković D, Pottumarthy S, MacCulloch D, Kerr AR, West T. Bacteriological outcome after valve surgery for active infective endocarditis: implications for duration of treatment after surgery. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(2):187–94.
López-Pardo F, Aguilera A, Villa M, Granado C, Campos A, Cisneros JM. Double-chambered right ventricle associated with mural and pulmonic valve endocarditis: description of a clinical case and review of the literature. Echocardiography. 2004;21(2):171–3.
Caruso A, Iarussi D, Dialetto G, Covino F, Crispo C, Coppolino P, Tripoldi MF, Utili R. Unusual cases of infective endocarditis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2002;15(1):93–5.
Grigorov V, Goldberg L, Manga P, Patel N. Diagnosis and management of complicated left atrial mural endocarditis: the role of transesophageal echocardiography. Echocardiography. 1999;16(6):585–6.
Shirani J, Keffler K, Gerszten E, Gbur CS, Arrowood JA. Primary left ventricular mural endocarditis diagnosed by transesophageal echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1995;8(4):554–6.
Phuong LK, Link M, Wijdicks E. Management of intracranial infectious aneurysms: a series of 16 cases. Neurosurgery. 2002;51(5):1145–51.
Tunkel AR, Kaye D. Neurologic complications of infective endocarditis. Neurol Clin. 1993;11(2):419–40.
Barrow DL, Prats AR. Infectious intracranial aneurysms: comparison of groups with and without endocarditis. Neurosurgery. 1990;27(4):562–72.
Moneta GL, Taylor Jr LM, Yeager RA, Edwards JM, Nicoloff AD, McConnell DB, Porter JM. Surgical treatment of infected aortic aneurysm. Am J Surg. 1998;175(5):396–9.
Chiang WC, Tsai JC, Chen SY, Hsu CY, Wu CT, Teng LJ, Hsueh PR. Mycotic aneurysm caused by Streptococcus constellatus subsp. constellatus. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42(4):1826–8.
Brook I, Frazier EH. Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of mycotic aortic aneurysm. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28(4):928–9.
Nijs A, Vandekerkhof J, Cartuyvels R, Magerman K, Mewis A, Peeters V, Rummens JL. Streptococcus pneumoniae-infected aneurysm extending from a persistent lobar pneumonia: case report and review of the literature. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;21(5):389–92.
Mansur AJ, Grinberg M, Leão PP, Chung CV, Stolf NA, Pileggi F. Extracranial mycotic aneurysms in infective endocarditis. Clin Cardiol. 1986;9(2):65–72.
Valero G, Cutrona AF, Watanakunakorn C, Talkington DF. Group A Streptococcus septicemia and an infected, ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm associated with pharyngitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15(3):525–7.
McNamara MF, Finnegan MO, Bakshi KR. Abdominal aortic aneurysms infected by Escherichia coli. Surgery. 1985;98(1):87–92.
Lee CC, Ng YY, Chou YH, Tiu CM, Wang Z, Yang HM, Chen TW, Yang WC. Mycotic aneurysm of the abdominal aorta in a patient undergoing hemodialysis: an unusual complication of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(5):823–4.
Ting AC, Cheng SW, Ho P, Poon JT, Tsu JH. Surgical treatment of infected aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms of the thoracic and abdominal aorta. Am J Surg. 2005;189(2):150–4.
Noel AA, Gloviczki P, Cherry Jr KJ, Safi H, Goldstone J, Morasch MD, Johansen KH, United States Cryopreserved Aortic Allograft Registry. Abdominal aortic reconstruction in infected fields: early results of the United States cryopreserved aortic allograft registry. J Vasc Surg. 2002;35(5):847–52.
Cheng NC, Hsu J, Chen JS, Tai HC, Yu HY. Open-window thoracostomy and microvascular muscle flap for severe intrathoracic infection around aortic prosthetic graft. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;129(5):1182–4.
Kitamura T, Morota T, Motomura N, Ono M, Shibata K, Ueno K, Kotsuka Y, Takamoto S. Management of infected grafts and aneurysms of the aorta. Ann Vasc Surg. 2005;19(3):335–42.
Kyriakides C, Kan Y, Kerle M, Cheshire NJ, Mansfield AO, Wolfe JH. 11-year experience with anatomical and extra-anatomical repair of mycotic aortic aneurysms. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2004;27(6):585–9.
Corso JE, Kasirajan K, Milner R. Endovascular management of ruptured, mycotic abdominal aortic aneurysm. Am Surg. 2005;71(6):515–7.
Gupta AK, Bandyk DF, Johnson BL. In situ repair of mycotic abdominal aortic aneurysms with rifampin-bonded gelatin-impregnated Dacron grafts: a preliminary case report. J Vasc Surg. 1996;24(3):472–6.
Batt M, Magne JL, Alric P, Muzj A, Ruotolo C, Ljungstrom KG, Garcia-Casas R, Simms M. In situ revascularization with silver-coated polyester grafts to treat aortic infection: early and midterm results. J Vasc Surg. 2003;38(5):983–9.
Teebken OE, Pichlmaier MA, Brand S, Haverich A. Cryopreserved arterial allografts for in situ reconstruction of infected arterial vessels. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2004;27(6):597–602.
Lesèche G, Castier Y, Petit MD, Bertrand P, Kitzis M, Mussot S, Besnard M, Cerceau O. Long-term results of cryopreserved arterial allograft reconstruction in infected prosthetic grafts and mycotic aneurysms of the abdominal aorta. J Vasc Surg. 2001;34(4):616–22.
González-Fajardo JA, Gutiérrez V, Martín-Pedrosa M, Del Rio L, Carrera S, Vaquero C. Endovascular repair in the presence of aortic infection. Ann Vasc Surg. 2005;19(1):94–8.
Cabell CH, Wang A. Current treatment options for patients with endocarditis: the evolving indications for cardiac surgery. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2004;6(6):441–9.
Thuny F, Habib G. When should we operate on patients with acute infective endocarditis? Heart. 2010;96(11):892–7.
Rubinovitch B, Pittet D. Infective endocarditis: too ill to be operated? Crit Care. 2002;6(2):106–7.
Nacht A, Kronzon I. Intracardiac shunts. Crit Care Clin. 1996;12(2):295–319.
Blumberg EA, Karalis DA, Chandrasekaran K, Wahl JM, Vilaro J, Covalesky VA, Mintz GS. Endocarditis-associated paravalvular abscesses. Do clinical parameters predict the presence of abscess? Chest. 1995;107(4):898–903.
Fowler Jr VG, Sakoulas G, McIntyre LM, Meka VG, Arbeit RD, Cabell CH, Stryjewski ME, Eliopoulos GM, Reller LB, Corey GR, Jones T, Lucindo N, Yeaman MR, Bayer AS. Persistent bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection is associated with agr dysfunction and low-level in vitro resistance to thrombin-induced platelet microbicidal protein. J Infect Dis. 2004;190(6):1140–9.
Fowler Jr VG, Olsen MK, Corey GR, Woods CW, Cabell CH, Reller LB, Cheng AC, Dudley T, Oddone EZ. Clinical identifiers of complicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163(17):2066–72.
Lesens O, Hansmann Y, Brannigan E, Remy V, Hopkins S, Martinot M, Meyer P, Connel BO, Monteil H, Christmann D, Bergin C. Positive surveillance blood culture is a predictive factor for secondary metastatic infection in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Infect. 2004;48(3):245–52.
Cunha BA, Gill MV, Lazar JM. Acute infective endocarditis. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1996;10(4):811–34.
Lederman MM, Sprague L, Wallis RS, Ellner JJ. Duration of fever during treatment of infective endocarditis. Medicine (Baltimore). 1992;71(1):52–7.
Angstwurm K, Borges AC, Halle E, Schielke E, Einhäupl KM, Weber JR. Timing the valve replacement in infective endocarditis involving the brain. J Neurol. 2004;251(10):1220–6.
Steckelberg JM, Murphy JG, Ballard D, Bailey K, Tajik AJ, Taliercio CP, Giuliani ER, Wilson WR. Emboli in infective endocarditis: the prognostic value of echocardiography. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114(8):635–40.
Deprèle C, Berthelot P, Lemetayer F, Comtet C, Fresard A, Cazorla C, Fascia P, Cathébras P, Chaumentin G, Convert G, Isaaz K, Barral X, Lucht F. Risk factors for systemic emboli in infective endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(1):46–53.
Cabell CH, Pond KK, Peterson GE, Durack DT, Corey GR, Anderson DJ, Ryan T, Lukes AS, Sexton DJ. The risk of stroke and death in patients with aortic and mitral valve endocarditis. Am Heart J. 2001;142(1):75–80.
De Castro S, Magni G, Beni S, Cartoni D, Fiorelli M, Venditti M, Schwartz SL, Fedele F, Pandian NG. Role of transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography in predicting embolic events in patients with active infective endocarditis involving native cardiac valves. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80(8):1030–4.
Rohmann S, Erbel R, Darius H, Görge G, Makowski T, Zotz R, Mohr-Kahaly S, Nixdorff U, Drexler M, Meyer J. Prediction of rapid versus prolonged healing of infective endocarditis by monitoring vegetation size. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1991;4(5):465–74.
Gillinov AM, Shah RV, Curtis WE, Stuart RS, Cameron DE, Baumgartner WA, Greene PS. Valve replacement in patients with endocarditis and acute neurologic deficit. Ann Thorac Surg. 1996;61(4):1125–9.
Maruyama M, Kuriyama Y, Sawada T, Yamaguchi T, Fujita T, Omae T. Brain damage after open heart surgery in patients with acute cardioembolic stroke. Stroke. 1989;20(10):1305–10.
Matsushita K, Kuriyama Y, Sawada T, Yamaguchi T, Nagata S, Kawazoe K, Omae T. Hemorrhagic and ischemic cerebrovascular complications of active infective endocarditis of native valve. Eur Neurol. 1993;33(3):267–74.
Eishi K, Kawazoe K, Kuriyama Y, Kitoh Y, Kawashima Y, Omae T. Surgical management of infective endocarditis associated with cerebral complications. Multi-center retrospective study in Japan. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1995;110(6):1745–55.
Ting W, Silverman N, Levitsky S. Valve replacement in patients with endocarditis and cerebral septic emboli. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991;51(1):18–21.
Trouillet JL, Hoen B, Battik R, Michel PL, Canavy I, Brochet E, Wolff M, Selton-Suty C. Splenic involvement in infectious endocarditis. Association for the Study and Prevention of Infectious Endocarditis. Rev Med Interne. 1999;20(3):258–63.
Robinson SL, Saxe JM, Lucas CE, Arbulu A, Ledgerwood AM, Lucas WF. Splenic abscess associated with endocarditis. Surgery. 1992;112(4):781–6.
Green BT. Splenic abscess: report of six cases and review of the literature. Am Surg. 2001;67(1):80–5.
Ting W, Silverman NA, Arzouman DA, Levitsky S. Splenic septic emboli in endocarditis. Circulation. 1990;82 Suppl 5:105–9.
Nores M, Phillips EH, Morgenstern L, Hiatt JR. The clinical spectrum of splenic infarction. Am Surg. 1998;64(2):182–8.
Balcar I, Seltzer SE, Davis S, Geller S. CT patterns of splenic infarction: a clinical and experimental study. Radiology. 1984;151(3):723–9.
Jaroch MT, Broughan TA, Hermann RE. The natural history of splenic infarction. Surgery. 1986;100(4):743–50.
Ooi LL, Leong SS. Splenic abscesses from 1987 to 1995. Am J Surg. 1997;174(1):87–93.
Johnson JD, Raff MJ, Barnwell PA, Chun CH. Splenic abscess complicating infectious endocarditis. Arch Intern Med. 1983;143(5):906–12.
Simsir SA, Cheeseman SH, Lancey RA, Vander Salm TJ, Gammie JS. Staged laparoscopic splenectomy and valve replacement in splenic abscess and infective endocarditis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75(5):1635–7.
Carbonell AM, Kercher KW, Matthews BD, Joels CS, Sing RF, Heniford BT. Laparoscopic splenectomy for splenic abscess. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2004;14(5):289–91.
Yoshikai M, Kamachi M, Kobayashi K, Murayama J, Kamohara K, Minematsu N. Splenic abscess associated with active infective endocarditis. Jpn J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2002;50(11):478–80.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Vinh, D.C., Embil, J.M. (2016). Treatment of Endocarditis. In: Chan, KL., Embil, J. (eds) Endocarditis. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27784-4_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27784-4_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-27782-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-27784-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)