Abstract
The development of Pacific Russia is becoming an increasingly important policy initiative for the Russian government. The chapter sets out to analyse two distinct forms of cooperation taking place, cross-border and interregional collaboration, which are vitally important for the socio-economic development of the region. The former is defined as cooperation between adjacent areas that are across state borders, and the latter focuses on communication and cooperation among areas across countries that are being undertaken without the involvement of the federal authorities. As Pacific Russia continues to emerge as a distinct economic, social and cultural space in the region contributing to the growing economic cooperation between Russia and East Asia, especially China, Japan, and South and North Korea, it is critical to examine how these two forms of cooperation can support the region’s economic development and political engagement. The chapter’s primary goal is to analyse the structure, framework, and utility of these differing forms of cooperation, and how they may benefit the development of Pacific Russia and international cooperation in the region.
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Notes
- 1.
According to Williams, “sub-national” stands for all levels of governments below the nation-state, including prefectures, towns, cities, and villages, and “local governments” stands for public authorities at the municipal level (Williams 2007: 178). This study uses the terms in a similar way.
- 2.
See: “Presidential Address to the Federal Assembly,” President of Russia Web Portal, 12 December 2013, http://eng.kremlin.ru/transcripts/6402 (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 3.
For discussion about the content of Pacific Russia see: “Pacific Russia—What is it? [Тихоокеанская Россия—что это такое?]” At the Map of Pacific: Analytical Bulletin [У карты Тихого океана: информационно-аналитический бюллетень], 2012, No. 29 (227), full text available at: http://ihaefe.org/files/pacific-ocean-map/29.pdf (accessed 4 May 2016).
- 4.
Unless otherwise specified, all data on foreign trade, investment, and tourism for Russia’s regions come from: Far Eastern Customs Directorate of Russia Federal Customs Service (Дальневосточное территориальное управление Федеральной таможенной службы), http://dvtu.customs.ru, Siberian Customs Directorate of Russia Federal Customs Service (Федеральная таможенная служба, Сибирское территориальное управление), http://stu.customs.ru/, and Russian Federation Federal State Statistics Service, Unified interdepartmental information and statistical system (Федеральная служба государственной статистики, Единая межведомственная информационно-статистическая система), http://www.fedstat.ru/indicator/data.do. These databases are updated regularly and allow us to see the commodity breakdown of Pacific Russia’s foreign trade with its neighbours. Data on foreign trade, foreign investments, and tourism for Chinese regions, such as Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Jilin, and Inner Mongolia provinces, come from regional statistical yearbooks, such as Heilongjiang Statistical Yearbook (黑龙江统计年鉴), Harbin: 中国统计出版社 (China Statistics Press); Liaoning Statistical Yearbook (辽宁统计年鉴), Beijing: 中国统计出版社 (China Statistics Press); Jilin Statistical Yearbook (吉林统计年鉴), Beijing, 中国统计出版社 (China Statistics Press), Inner Mongolia Statistical Yearbook (2015) (内蒙古统计年鉴), Beijing: 中国统计出版社 (China Statistics Press). Using these sources, the author has created his own database. Numbers mentioned in the text that are not attributed to other sources are derived from these databases.
- 5.
See, for instance, such documents as: The Concept of Irkutsk Region Socio-Economic Development for The Period up to 2020 (Концепция социально-экономического развития Иркутской области на период до 2020 года), http://irkobl.ru/economy/strategy (accessed 15 October 2015); The Program of Socio-Economic Development of the Republic of Buryatia in the period up to 2020 (Программа социально-экономического развития Республики Бурятия на период до 2020 года) http://www.economy.burnet.ru/makroprognozirovanie/documents_sip.php (accessed 15 January 2015); Primorsky Territory Development Program Until 2017 (Программа развития Приморского края до 2017 г.) http://primorsky.ru/authorities/executive-agencies/departments/economics/program-of-socio-economic-development-of-the-primorsky-territory-for-5-years-2013-2017.php (accessed 3 May 2016); The Strategy for Khabarovsk Territory Development Until 2025 (Стратегия развития Хабаровского края до 2025 г.), http://gov.khabkrai.ru/invest2.nsf/pages/ru/postan_13012009.htm (accessed 15 May 2016).
- 6.
In response to the Korean initiative, 20 Chinese local governments formulated plans to participate in the strategy in close cooperation with South Korean local counterparts [Kim T., 2015]. At the same time, the authorities of China’s northeastern territories (primarily Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner Mongolia) undertook ideological campaign to extend the “Silk road economic belt” eastwards to Russian ports on the Pacific shore and to create the meridional “economic corridor China—Mongolia—Russia.” In April 2015, Heilongjiang government has promulgated a plan “to accelerate the construction of land and sea Silk Road economic belt in Heilongjiang.” See: Actively react to new normalcy, accelerate the realization declared program to “construct land and sea Silk Road economic belt in Heilongjiang” (积极应对新常态,加快建设“龙江陆海丝绸之路经济带”宣讲提纲), Government of Heilongjiang, 2015, http://www.hljjs.gov.cn/a/jingshenwenming/jianshedongtai/2015/0727/43373.html (accessed 5 March 2016).
- 7.
In June 1961, the Russia city of Nakhodka and the Japanese city of Maizuru signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation. In 1965, Khabarovsk and Niigata established sister cities relations; then Khabarovsk territory and Niigata prefecture signed an agreement on cooperation.
- 8.
In the 1980s, the Soviet Far East provided over half of the USSR’s total export to Japan, including almost 80% of timber, 70% of coal, and 100% of fish and oil products exported to Japan. Moreover, if one looks at the goods which are not identified by place of mining or manufacture (precious metals and stones, and rare metals), one will see that at least 80% of Soviet exports to Japan comprised Soviet`s Far Eastern resources (Ivanov 1989: 17).
- 9.
As the USSR Minister for Foreign Trade Nikolai Patolichev wrote in 1975, “Japanese participation in exploring the rich natural resources of Siberia and the Far East will greatly speed up the development of productive forces in these areas. On the other hand, they will ensure stable and long-term suppliers of important raw materials and energy resources to Japan which so necessary for the Japanese economy” (Mathieson 1979: 15–16).
- 10.
Until 2007, it was an integral part of Japan–Russia Intergovernmental Committee on Trade and Economic Issues under the name Sub-committee on economic relations with Far East Russia.
- 11.
The Russian American Pacific Partnership (RAPP)—formerly the US West Coast–Russian Far East Ad-Hoc Working Group—was established in 1994 to encourage commercial cooperation between the US West Coast and the Russian Far East. RAPP’s Secretariats operate from the Foundation for Russian American Economic Cooperation (FRAEC) in Seattle, Washington, and the Interregional Association for Economic Development of the Far East and Trans-Baikal Regions of Khabarovsk, Russia. The 19th Annual Meeting of RAPP took place on 9–10 September 2014 in San Diego, California (http://www.usrussia.org/10001.html (accessed 2 March 2015).
- 12.
Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/ns-dipecon.nsf/ (accessed 22 March 2015). A little less than 50% of these agreements (13) were signed with PRC authorities (seven of them—with Heilongjiang province, which was the most active one on the Chinese side), four—with Mongolian, two—with Japanese, and one—with South Korea’s.
- 13.
Altogether, the Japanese sub-national governments settled 21 missions in Europe, including three in the Russian Federation. All three are situated on the Pacific coast. For more details see: An outlook of [Japanese] municipalities missions abroad (Europe) for the end of September, 2014 (自治体の海外拠点一覧 【地域別(欧州)】 平成26年9月末時点), Retrieved 17 March 2015 from http://www.clair.or.jp/docs/tiikibetu2.pdf (accessed 15 May 2016).
- 14.
China has more than 700 sister city agreements with counterparts in Japan, South Korea, DPRK, Canada, and USA; Japan has about 1020 agreements in China, the Republic of Korea (RK), Canada, and the USA; and the USA has 700 cooperation ties in China, Japan, and RK.
- 15.
For more details, see: Russia Sister-Cities (Города-побратимы России), http://goroda-pobratimy.ru/index/spisok_porodnennykh_gorodov_3/0-13 (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 16.
For more information, see: China International Friendship City Association (中国国际友好城市联合会), 2016, http://www.cifca.org.cn/Web/index.aspx (accessed 10 May 2016).
- 17.
Japan Council of Local Authorities for International Relations (自治体国際化協会), 2016, http://www.clair.or.jp/ (10 May 2016).
- 18.
Sister Cities International 2015 Membership Directory (2015), Washington, DC: Sister Cities International.
- 19.
Embassy of Russia to the DPRK, http://www.rusembdprk.ru/en/russia-and-dprk/regional-cooperation (accessed 17 March 2016).
- 20.
The overview of municipalities’ activities in the field of sister city relations in 2012 fiscal year (平成24年度姉妹(友好)提携自治体の活動概況について(結果概要), http://www.clair.or.jp/j/exchange/docs/simai-gaiyo_2012.pdf (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 21.
The Association of North East Asia Regional Governments was established in 1996 in Gyeongju (South Korea) by the representatives of 29 local administrations of South Korea, Japan, China, and Russia. Later North Korea and Mongolia joined the Association.
- 22.
The organisation was arranged in 1991, and, at that time had eleven representatives from eight northern countries. Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is one of the most active members of the Forum now.
- 23.
For more information, see: Regional handbook (2014) (地域ハンドブック). Tokyo, p. 154.
- 24.
However, one should not overestimate this resource. The share of Russian partners is less than 3% of all twin cities in Japan, 5% in China, and 14% in South Korea. The USA, in turn, has 220 sister relationships with communities in the People’s Republic of China, 414 with Japan, and 67 with South Korea. See: “Asia Matters for America” by the East-West Center, http://www.asiamattersforamerica.org/china/data/sistercities (accessed 15 Marcy 2015).
- 25.
For more information, see the above-mentioned Sister City International, China International Friendship City Association, and Japan Council of Local Authorities for International Relations.
- 26.
According to Chinese sources, in 1998 the volume of Heilongjiang Province’s so-called “people’s trade” (shuttle trade) with Russia amounted to US$ 502.6 million while official export to Russia was US$ 864 million. See: Heilongjiang Statistical Yearbook (1999) (黑龙江统计年鉴), Harbin: 中国统计出版社 (China Statistics Press), pp. 296, 341, 344.
- 27.
Fish and seafood were smuggled to Japan, the USA, and later to South Korea while wood and scrap metal were smuggled to China by the echelons. Not by chance, Rozman called “the criminal nature of cross-border ties” in 1990s “a cancer threatening the very health of Russo-Japanese relations” (Rozman 2000a: 211).
- 28.
For Russian continental territories bordering China, Heilongjiang province and Inner Mongolia were naturally the main and sometimes the only available option. The coastal areas were freer to choose, but they also preferred to interact with well-known neighbours who were ready for dialogue.
- 29.
FEFD trade with China and South Korea, which have not joined the sanction, was the most affected (dropped by 36.4 and 37.6%, respectively), while its commerce with Japan decreased 29.3% and with the USA only11.5%.
- 30.
From 2007 to 2014, the volume of cumulative US investments in the FEFD decreased threefold, from $175 million to $59 million, while cumulative direct investments declined from $135 million to $48 million.
- 31.
Calculated based on Russia’s customs statistics, www.customs.ru; www.dvtu.customs.ru; http://stu.customs.ru/ (accessed 19 March 2015).
- 32.
See: Japan Statistical Yearbook (2015), Tokyo: Japan Statistical Association, pp. 352, 470–471; International Trade Yearbook (2013), Seoul: Korea International Trade Association, pp. 290–308.
- 33.
Northwest Pacific Region Economic Center (環日本海貿易交流センター), http://www.near21.jp/ (accessed 15 May 2016).
- 34.
See: Hokkaido Trade Survey (2014) (北海道貿易概況), Hakodate Customs (函館税関), http://www.customs.go.jp/hakodate/12toukei/ 02hokkaido/index.htm, (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 35.
Chukotka autonomous district was the only one with significant trade with the USA: 23.1% of its trade and 22% of import in 2013, and 15.8% of trade and 32% of import in 2014 was with the US. Magadan region was the second: 17% and 28% in 2013, and 3.9% and 13.6% in 2014, respectively.
- 36.
This number includes14.2 million PRC citizens, 11 million Japanese, 8.5 million South Korean, 4.3 million Americans, 2.8 million Russians, 1.6 million Chinese from Taiwan, 1.1 million Canadians, 250,000 North Koreans and excludes 45 million Americans and Canadians who are accustomed to visit each other regularly.
- 37.
In 2013, Heilongjiang province accepted 937,000 Russians, Inner Mongolia—639,000, Liaoning province—323,000, and Jilin province—300,000. In 2012 the number was, correspondingly, 1.5 million, 556,000, 277,000, and 320,000.
- 38.
One-day tourism, when the tourists do not spend a night in a hotel and are not included in official tourist statistics, is especially typical for cross-Amur River exchange between Blagoveshchensk and Heihe.
- 39.
According to Chinese National Tourism Administration, among 2.19 million Russian citizens who visited China in 2013, 527,000 arrived by air, 62,000 “by rail,” 1.1 million “by motor,” 340,000 “by sea,” and 149,000 “on foot.” The last three groups amounting to 1.6 million (73% of the total number) are unambiguously the citizens of Pacific Russia, while a certain number of Pacific Russia citizens took flights from Vladivostok and Khabarovsk to Beijing, Hong Kong, and Harbin and train from Zabaikalsk to Manzhouli and from Grodekovo to Suifenhe also. See: China National Tourism Administration (中华人民共和国国家旅游局), http://www.cnta.gov.cn/ (accessed 15 March 2015).
- 40.
The survey covered 1500 respondents in 100 urban and rural settlements of Russia’s 43 regions. For more details, see http://fom.ru/Obraz-zhizni/11470# (accessed 14 May 2015).
- 41.
Executive order on measures to implement foreign policy (2012), http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/3764 (accessed 4 May 2014).
- 42.
Concept of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation (2013), full English text available at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/76389fec168189ed44257b2e0039b16d!OpenDocument (accessed 20 May 2016).
- 43.
See: The Concept of Development of Border Territories of Russia’s Far Eastern Federal Districts http://government.ru/media/files/FuIGBPKawTbXiRmufyHpAxtGzUgc0Kpm.pdf (accessed 30 March 2016).
- 44.
Treaty on Good Neighbourly Friendship and Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China (Договор о добрососедстве, дружбе и сотрудничестве между Российской Федерацией и Китайской Народной Республикой) http://archive.mid.ru/bdomp/spd_md.nsf/0/252BB887D3BFD65A43257F9C0028E0F3 (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 45.
Joint Statement of the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China on Mutually Beneficial Cooperation and Deepening the Comprehensive Strategic Cooperative Partnership, 2013, http://news.kremlin.ru/ref_notes/1423 (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 46.
Northeast China Revitalization Plan 2007 (东北地区振兴规划2007), from http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2007-08/20/content_721632.htm (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 47.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/russia/initiative0706.html (accessed 5 May 2016).
- 48.
Initiative for the Strengthening Japan-Russia cooperation in the Far East Russia and Eastern Siberia, 2007, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/russia/initiative0706.html (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 49.
The President Holds Summit with Russian President Vladimir Putin, 2013, http://english1.president.go.kr/activity/briefing.php?srh%5Bpage%5D=2&srh%5Bview_mode%5D=detail&srh%5Bseq%5D=2601&srh%5Bdetail_no%5D=94 (accessed 3 May 2016).
- 50.
The respondents could choose no more than three countries and regions.
- 51.
Vladivostok has Consulate Generals of Japan, USA, RK, DPRK, India, and Vietnam and Honorable Consuls of Australia, Canada, Philippine, Indonesia, South Africa, etc. Japan has Consulates General in Khabarovsk, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, and Irkutsk; China—in Khabarovsk with its branch in Vladivostok.
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Larin, V. (2017). Pacific Russia in the New Regionalism of North Pacific: Cross-Border and Interregional Relations. In: Huang, J., Korolev, A. (eds) The Political Economy of Pacific Russia . International Political Economy Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40120-1_2
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