Keywords

1 Introduction

In recent years, there has been increasing attention to cognitive and learning sciences that study learning process and problem-solving process of various learning students including elementary, junior high school and high school students.

Cognitive science in learning is a study that aims to scientifically understand deep learning and the process of information processing to promote effective and efficient learning for learners. Thus, a concrete method needs to be developed to help learners recognize necessary information for problem-solving in learning.

Currently, various types of tests including entrance and regular examinations are conducted to measure academic performance of learners. However, it is critical for learners to acquire, understand and recognize necessary information correctly from given questions in any form of examinations.

Daniel Kahneman argues that humans possess two different systems of thinking for decision-making. 1)

The first system is called Fast (System 1), thinking driven by intuitive and emotional value evaluation. The second system is known as Slow (System 2), thinking based on logical and rational value evaluation. The complementary interaction between these two different value evaluations enables humans to recognize and process various information and to make decisions. In intuitive decision-making by Fast (System 1), humans match new information with existing learning experience, retrieve a range of associated information and make decisions unconsciously and automatically based on associated information. Sophisticated Fast (System 1) combines accurate information instantaneously and builds a new information network for problem-solving. However, wrong and little input or non-existing input in past experience can easily result in simplistic thinking, which creates biases and errors. In contrast, thoughtful decision-making by Slow (System 2) can be seen as a statistical thinking that makes rational decisions by consciously recognizing implications of information.

In other words, despite having the two different systems of thinking for information processing and decision making, humans tend to rely on intuition of Fast (System 1) for value evaluation, automatic and unconscious thinking, rather than Slow (System 2) that generates excessive stress in the process of information processing. This tendency has been one of causes for errors.

For this reason, information analysis and decision making skill are also required to solve questions in various daily examinations for learners including elementary, junior high school and high school students.

Thus, attention has been given to general highlighter pens used by learners in order to help learners organize information accurately and make right decisions by enhancing problem-solving skill. Highlighter pens are used to highlight important points and to draw attention with vivid and bright colors so as to improve learning efficiency.

To examine the effect of marking with a highlighter pen, there have been studies dealing with visually favorable fluorescent colors, its impacts on memory2), as well as how proper marking in sentences influence key word searching. 3)

However, it has been unknown how marking with a highlighter pen for different purposes would influence attentional capacity, cognitive capacity and memory ability and what changes marking would bring to the process of information processing and eye movements of humans.

Card advocates Model Human Processor, a simplified and approximated model of the process of information processing of humans, consisting of perceptual, cognitive and motor processors. 4) When learners process information (and solve problems), information is input through sensory organs including eyes and ears and stored in the visual image store. Learners repeat the process of matching input information with long-term memory and answering selected responses to solve various problems. When problems are recognized visually, marking with a highlighter pen can limit the amount of visual information input and ease cognitive load.

Therefore, with the focus on perceptual system in Model Human Processor, this study verified the effects of marking with a highlighter pen on eye movement patterns by measuring changes in the number of eye movements and visual fixation frame rate.

2 Experimental

2.1 Test Subjects

The test subjects were 2nd and 3rd grade junior high school students who study at a cram school. Table 1 shows data of the test subjects. All test subjects have normal eyesight with naked eyes. Students with glasses are not included in the test subjects so as not to interfere the measurement of eye movements.

Table 1. Grade, number of tests subjects, ratio of male and female students
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2.2 Experimental Details

Questions on third person singular present S and tense (present, past and future tense) of English were prepared with and without marking respectively.

First, 10 questions on third person singular present S and tense (Both without marking) were presented in turns to the test subjects. Then, 5 questions on third person singular present S (with marking) were given, followed by 5 questions on tense (with marking). At the end, 10 questions on third person singular present S and tense (both without marking) were presented in turns to the test subjects. The purpose of this experiment was to verify how marking with a highlighter pen would influence eye movements. It can be expected that there would be changes in answer time and the number of eye movements to key points and clues of questions if marking is related to problem-solving. Thus, the number of eye movements and fixation duration on each item were measured when the test subjects answered each question.

2.3 Experimental Conditions

Each question was projected one by one on white board (140 cm W x 80 cm H), using a projector. Once the test subjects answered a question, next question was projected on the white board. The tests subjects sit at a distance of 130 cm from the white board. A chin rest was also used to fix the head of the test subjects to minimize influences on the eye movement measurement by preventing inadvertent movements of the upper body and neck. Figure 1 shows the picture of the chin rest.

Fig. 1.
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Chin rest, interacoustics

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Mobile Eye Mark Recorder EMR-9, eye-tracking analysis system made by NAC image technology, was used for the measurement. Figure 2 shows the picture of the device.

Fig. 2.
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Eye tracking analysis system: product name Mobile Eye Mark Recorder EMR-9

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2.4 Experimental Questions

Figure 3 shows the question on third person singular present S without marking while Fig. 4 presents the one with marking. The question on tense without marking is shown in Fig. 5, and the one with marking is provided in Fig. 6.

Fig. 3.
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Third person singular present S: example without marking

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Fig. 4.
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Third person singular present S: example with marking

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Fig. 5.
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Tense: example without marking

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Fig. 6.
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Tense: example with marking

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3 Results

3.1 Visual Fixation Frame Rate on Each Item

Fixation items in each question were categorized into subject, verb, times and others, and the average fixation frame rate on each item (60 frames per second) was measured for all test subjects. Figures 7 and 8 show the frame rate result of questions on third person singular present S and tense respectively. In the questions of third person singular present S, the frame rates on subject, a key item to answer, and verb, choices of answer, were low when the test subjects answered C (2nd half of 10 questions) that was presented after A (1st half of 10 questions) and B (10 questions with marking).

Fig. 7.
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Fixation frame rate (Third person singular present S) (Color figure online)

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Fig. 8.
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Fixation frame rate (Tense) (Color figure online)

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The questions of tense showed the similar result of low frame rate on times, a key item to answer and verb, choices of answers.

3.2 The Ratio of Fixation Frame Rate on Key Item

In the questions of third person singular present S, the ratio of frame rate on subject, a key item to answer, to the total frame rate was confirmed to further investigate fixation duration on each item. Figure 9 shows its result. The value of C (10 questions in the 2nd half) that was given to the subjects after B (10 questions with marking) was lower than that of A (10 questions in the 1st half).

Fig. 9.
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Fixation frame rate on key item (Third person singular present S) (Color figure online)

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Figure 10 shows the result for the tense questions. As is the case with third person singular present S, C (10 questions in 2nd half) presented the lower value. Meanwhile, B (10 questions with marking) showed the highest value in the questions of both third person singular present S and tense.

Fig. 10.
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Fixation frame rate on key item (Tense) (Color figure online)

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3.3 Comparison of High and Low Academic Achieving Students(the Number of Eye Movements)

Figures 11 and 12 show the number of eye movements of the top two and bottom two students in the test result for third person singular present S and tense respectively. In the number of eye movements in the question of third person singular present S, the top two test subjects made the fewer eye movements than the bottom two in all sections, A (10 questions in the 1st half), B (10 questions with marking) and C (10 questions in the 2nd half).

Fig. 11.
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The number of eye movements in high and low academic achieving students (Third person singular present S). (Color figure online)

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Fig. 12.
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The number of eye movements in high and low academic achieving students (Tense) (Color figure online)

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Likewise, in the questions of tense, the top two showed the fewer eye movements than the bottom two.

3.4 Comparison of High and Low Academic Achieving Students (Fixation Frame Rate)

Fixation frame rate on each item in question sentences (subject, verb, times, others and unrelated objects) was verified for the top two and bottom two test subjects. The results for third person singular present S and tense are provided in Figs. 13 and 14 respectively. In the question of third person singular present S, the ratio of frame rate on subject, a key item to question, to the total frame rate was verified. In the questions of tense, the ratio of the frame rate on times to the total frame rate was examined.

Fig. 13.
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Fixation frame rate of high and low academic achieving students (Third person singular present S). (Color figure online)

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Fig. 14.
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Fixation frame rate of high and low academic achieving students (Tense) (Color figure online)

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In the questions of third person singular present S, the top two test subjects recorded lower frame rate than the bottom two in A (10 questions in the 1st half). However, the top two showed a tendency of higher frame rate than the bottom two in B (10 questions with marking) and C (10 questions in the 2nd half).

In the questions of tense, the top two test subjects recorded higher frame rate than the bottom two in A (10 questions in the 1st half), B (10 questions with marking) and C (10 questions in the 2nd half).

4 Discussion and Conclusion

In this study, effects given to eye movements in processing information (and solving problems) by marking with a highlighter pen were verified by experiments using questions of third person singular present S and tense.

The result of fixation frame rate for all test subjects showed that frame rate on a key item and choices of answer was low when the test subjects answered C (10 questions in the 2nd half) that was given after B (10 questions with marking). For this reason, it can be assumed that marking with a highlighter pen has potential to shorten time to reach an answer.

The comparison of high and low academic achieving students showed the fewer eye movements and high fixation frame rate on key word item among the top students. This suggests that the top students have a tendency of processing information fast to recognize key word and reaching an answer after double-checking. In contrast, the bottom students presented more eye movements and the lower fixation frame rate on key word item. It can be assumed that key word searching led to more eye movements and lower fixation frame rate, which resulted in the fewer number of correct answers among low academic achieving students.

This experiment was conducted in an environment where unrelated items projected on the screen were also in the view of the tests subjects. By the improving experimental environment and increasing the number of test subjects, further analysis will be performed to verify the effects of marking with a highlighter pen in the future. Furthermore, effects of marking on information searching will be examined by analyzing brain activities including cerebral blood flow.