Abstract
This chapter begins by acknowledging how rituals of humiliation have been entangled with political and theological ideas. In laying bare such entanglements, the role of religion in constituting power relations is better understood. In this way, the chapter methodologically performs a kind of grieving over such wrongs. If religions have been complicit in perpetuating rituals of humiliation, a liberative political theological imagination lifts up religions (imbued with ritual practices) as part of the solution. The lens of ritual enables an understanding of human persons as homo ritualis, thus emphasizing the significance of everyday habits and dispositions. Rites are explored as possible solutions to wrongs. Rites of moral responsibility ultimately aim to create conditions for enacting agency for engendering a more hospitable world.
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Notes
- 1.
Persons are already late in attending to this task. It is often heroic desire to “change” the world that generates misanthropy. I thus stress the already late aspect in attending to responsibility to highlight that human agency is not to be enacted heroically. A self-critical humility accompanies the task of human agency to recreate the world. I adapt this idea of being always already late in attending to the human task of repair and redress from Levinas. Levinas observes, “In approaching the other I am always late for the meeting.” See Levinas, Otherwise than Being, 150.
- 2.
Tyson, Blood of Emmett Till, 173–174.
- 3.
Cited in Batts, “Modern Racism,” 7.
- 4.
The book’s title is Breaking India. The event was organized by the Religious Life Office’s Coordinator for Hindu Life and took place at Friend Center at Princeton University in March 2011. I have since co-authored a response that debunks its claims. See Young and Boopalan, “Studied Silences?,” 215–238.
- 5.
The cruelties surrounding the Khairlanji incident are clearly documented in the press, easily confirmable, then and now. For contexts and claims, see Teltumbde, Khairlanji. Also see Teltumbde, The Persistence of Caste.
- 6.
Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 43.
- 7.
Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 43.
- 8.
See Medina, “California to Revise How India Is Portrayed in Textbooks.”
- 9.
On this topic, see Visweswaran, “Diaspora by Design,” 5–29.
- 10.
For an analysis of how founding violence intersects with politics, see Veracini, “Settler Collective,” 363–379.
- 11.
Feagin, White Racial Frame, 13, 17, 19.
- 12.
Naber, “‘Look, Mohammed the Terrorist Is Coming!,’” 303.
- 13.
While the Indian American gathering in which Khairlanji was framed out was predominantly Hindu, it must be noted that caste-based logic affects persons from other religions as well. This includes Christians. The Dalit critique in this book is thus a critique of caste dominance wherever it may be found.
- 14.
Martin, “By Perseverance and Unwearied Industry,” 107–108.
- 15.
Martin, “By Perseverance and Unwearied Industry,” 108.
- 16.
Cited in Blum and Harvey, Color of Christ, 94.
- 17.
Blum and Harvey, Color of Christ, 94.
- 18.
For a recent work on the topic, see Byron, “‘A Catechism for Their Special Use.’”
- 19.
Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 86–87.
- 20.
Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 86.
- 21.
See Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 56ff.
- 22.
Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 60.
- 23.
Gutierrez and Almaguer, New Latino Studies Reader, 316.
- 24.
See Tobar, “Can Latinos Swing Arizona?” As Tobar notes, “prior to 1975, Arizona provided campaign materials only in English, despite the large Spanish-speaking population.” Huntington-like logic can be deciphered here.
- 25.
Whitlock and Bronski, Considering Hate, 80.
- 26.
Important to note here is the role of racialized thinking in such patrols. “Race” (rather than other empirical data such as the number of 911 calls) is often at play in these saturation patrols. See “Reasonable Doubt Part III.”
- 27.
This is a major piece of Ambedkar’s argument in his influential work, Annihilation of Caste.
- 28.
“UP Launches Probe into Killing over Beef.”
- 29.
Mehra, “Who, What and Where of Dadri.”
- 30.
Naber, “‘Look, Mohammed the Terrorist Is Coming!,’” 279–280.
- 31.
Naber, “‘Look, Mohammed the Terrorist Is Coming!,’” 279–280.
- 32.
Naber, “‘Look, Mohammed the Terrorist Is Coming!,’” 279–280.
- 33.
Etienne Balibar, cited in Oboler, “‘It Must Be a Fake!,’” 133.
- 34.
E. Donald Two-Rivers, cited in Kidwell, Noley, and Tinker, “Afterword,” 166.
- 35.
Kaufman, Theological Imagination, 11–12. Kaufman (12) defines “theological imagination” as that which “devotes itself to the continual critical reconstruction of the symbol ‘God,’ so that it can with greater effectiveness orient contemporary and future human life.” For an account of how dominant social conventions limit the imagination, see Crapanzano, Imaginative Horizons.
- 36.
Rajkumar, “Christian Ethics in Asia,” 138.
- 37.
O’Donovan, Desire of the Nations, 16.
- 38.
Although not directly responding to theological thinking that is uneasy with remembering wrongs, Kwok asks a pertinent question that may be posed in response to this theological school. How to dislodge ourselves from “habitual ways of thinking” and “established forms of inquiry?,” she (3) asks. Kwok outlines three kinds of theological imagination: “historical imagination” (31), “dialogical imagination” (38) and “diasporic imagination” (44). See Kwok, Postcolonial Imagination and Feminist Theology.
- 39.
Clarke, Dalits and Christianity, 26.
- 40.
Nirmal, “Doing Theology from a Dalit Perspective,” 141.
- 41.
Althaus-Reid, Indecent Theology, 5.
- 42.
Althaus-Reid, Indecent Theology, 5.
- 43.
Camacho, “When Liberation Theology Failed.” Only after’s its “initial failures,” Camacho notes, did liberation theology include voices such as Beatriz Melano Couch, María Pilar Aquino, Elsa Tamez, María Clara Bingemer, Ivone Gebara, Ana María Trepedino, Consuelo del Prado, and Ada María Isasi-Díaz.
- 44.
For a discussion of this problematic in a context outside India and the importance of long-term redress of structural wrongs, see Medina, Mestizaje.
- 45.
For a representative sample, see Clarke, Dalits and Christianity, 76–88; Rajkumar, “A Dalithos Reading of a Markan Exorcism,” 428–435; and Dayam, “Gonthemma Korika,” 137–149.
- 46.
Originally an admonition from Vidula to her son about “kshatriya” values, Kunti recounts this conversation to Krishna, asking Krishna to instruct Yudhishthira, Kunti’s son, about its morals. See Slavitt, Mahabharata, 454–455.
- 47.
Cornwall, Controversies in Queer Theology, 148.
- 48.
Cheng, Radical Love, 9. For another work that gives sustained attention to the notion of a “queer God,” see Althaus-Reid, Queer God. For a socio-political history of the term “queer,” see “Enable Queer-y” in Lightsey, Our Lives Matter, 28–35. Lightsey (34) notes how a historically pejorative category (“queer”) is alternatively employed to enact anti-oppressive life-giving practices.
- 49.
McFague, Body of God, 163–164.
- 50.
Alves, I Believe in the Resurrection of the Body, 32. For more context on Alves’ person and work, see Barreto Jr., “Rubem Alves and the Kaki Tree.”
- 51.
Raja, “Some Reflections on a Dalit Reading of the Bible,” 85.
- 52.
Alves, Theology of Human Hope, 150.
- 53.
Madrid, Suffering and salvation in Ciudad Juárez, 126.
- 54.
Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 225.
- 55.
Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 221.
- 56.
Olyan, Biblical Mourning, 148.
- 57.
The stress on “moral” also avoids solipsistic approaches to human agency. One is inescapably bound with others. For a discussion of how “moral” highlights relation to persons, see Martin’s explanation of “moral agency” in More than Chains and Toil, 39–41.
- 58.
Douglas, Stand Your Ground, 225.
- 59.
The concept of “religion” is not without problems and often tends to be an abstraction. For a sample of the commentary on this complexity, see “Introduction” in Smith, Imagining Religion, xi–xii and Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 1–5, 256–271.
- 60.
Bell, “Religion through Ritual,” 180. Bell (181) points out how, despite social scientists’ expectation in the 19th and 20th centuries that it will “fade away,” religion continues to thrive. In her essay, Who Owns Tradition? Bell (2) asks us to consider the way rituals “often seem to have little to do with what authoritative religious leadership or scholarship have to say.” One could then critically enquire if religious leaders and scholars inadvertently limit the creative agential possibilities of religious ritual practice.
- 61.
See Smith, “Religion, Religions, Religious,” 269–284. A definition of “religion” as that which binds also follows DurkheimDurkheim, Emile. See Émile Durkheim, Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.
- 62.
Jones, “How to Change the Past,” 270, 278.
- 63.
I get the idea of homo ritualis from Michaels’s book Homo Ritualis.
- 64.
For an articulation of the positive nature of the oppositional component, see Taylor, “Agonistic Political,” in Theological and the Political, 67–114.
- 65.
Fulkerson, A Body Broken, A Body Betrayed, 33.
- 66.
Fulkerson, A Body Broken, A Body Betrayed, 37–38.
- 67.
For a description of caste-based discrimination that haunted/haunts Christian religious practices, see Raj, Discrimination against Dalit Christians in Tamil Nadu; Koshy, Caste in Kerala Churches; and Mosse, Christianity and Caste Society in India.
- 68.
See Kaur, Honour Killings in India; Bhullar and Bhullar, Honour Killings and Human Rights in India.
- 69.
Despite lethal risks, youth do transgress caste boundaries and find love and shelter in cheris (Dalit area of the village, as readers will recall from chapter one) all over India, even today. These movements “out of place,” however minimal, are indeed a source of hope.
- 70.
Dalit commentators have rightly called such suicides “the death of merit.” “Death of Merit” is the title of two-part documentary produced by Anoop Kumar of Insight Foundation. The documentary is available for viewing on Youtube.
- 71.
Glancy, Corporal Knowledge, 12.
- 72.
Pinn, a humanist who does not subscribe to formal religion, notes some of these possibilities in a preliminary fashion in “Watch the Body with New Eyes,” 404–411, 473.
- 73.
In the U.S. context, Jennings has termed racialized social imagination as “a diseased social imagination.” Jennings also notes the importance of a resistive task when he argues, “The concept of reconciliation is not irretrievable, but I am convinced that before we theologians can interpret the depths of divine action of reconciliation we must first articulate the profound deformities of Christian intimacy and identity in modernity. Unless we do, all theological discussions of reconciliation will be exactly what they tend to be: (a) ideological tools for facilitating the negotiations of power; or (b) socially exhausted idealist claims masquerading as serious theological accounts.” See Jennings, Christian Imagination, 8, 10.
- 74.
Bell notes how rituals give persons the power to “make and remake their worlds.” See Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice, 3.
- 75.
This is a point repeatedly made by Butler.
- 76.
Frantz Fanon, cited in Philcox “On Retranslating Fanon, Retrieving a Lost Voice,” in Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 243–244. Fanon makes reference to the 1959 events in Martinique.
- 77.
Intersectional thinking and practice enables subjects to employ different lenses such as caste, race, class, gender, sexuality, ability, and so on in order to understand complex social realities that may affect different marginalized groups differently. Such intersectional thinking, in turn, facilitates solidarity across in-group/out-group differences. See Crenshaw’s influential essay “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” 1241–1299. For a more recent short booklet on the topic, see Collins and Bilge, Intersectionality.
- 78.
Oyola, Religion, Social Memory, and Conflict, 28.
- 79.
Cited in Glancy, Corporal Knowledge, 11.
- 80.
I adapt the phrase from Menon’s book title, Blindness of Insight.
- 81.
Kwok’s observation of “white queer theologians’ propensity to separate sexual oppression from the broader network of power relation” supplements Townes’ point. See Kwok, Postcolonial Imagination and Feminist Theology, 142.
- 82.
Townes, cited in Turman, Towards a Womanist Ethic of Incarnation, 148. Here, Townes refers to cultural codings in U.S. society. I extrapolate the insight for application to caste-based and racialized societies.
- 83.
Oboler, “It Must Be a Fake!,” 135.
- 84.
Butler, Notes toward a Performative Theory of Assembly, 70–71.
- 85.
Monroe, “When and Where I Enter, Then the Whole Race Enters with Me,” 130.
- 86.
Anzaldúa, Borderlands, 108.
- 87.
Choi, “Racial Identity and Solidarity,” 131.
- 88.
“Tribals” or “Scheduled Tribes,” as the government of India calls them for purposes of affirmative action, are indigenous communities that are increasingly calling themselves “Adivasis” (“first” or “original” inhabitants) and make up about 10% of India’s population.
- 89.
Anzaldúa, Borderlands, 20.
- 90.
Rivera, Poetics of the Flesh, 145.
- 91.
Butler, Dispossession, 67.
- 92.
Butler, cited in Joh, “Violence and Asian American Experience,” 145.
- 93.
Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom, 92.
- 94.
Cited in Sims, Lynched, 57.
- 95.
Hopkins, Being Human, 4–5.
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Boopalan, S.J. (2017). Wrongs and Rites: Rituals of Humiliation and Rites of Moral Responsibility . In: Memory, Grief, and Agency. New Approaches to Religion and Power. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58958-9_6
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