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Maritime Security Risk Treatment: India; Indian Ocean Region Middle, Small and Developing States; Major External Powers

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Maritime Security Risks, Vulnerabilities and Cooperation

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Abstract

Nation-states remain the primary actors in the international system. Prospects for regional and extra-regional states’ involvement in maritime security risk treatment and vulnerability reduction efforts in the Indian Ocean region are evaluated. States’ exposures to maritime risks and vulnerabilities are also briefly reviewed. The likelihood of leadership and contributions from the major regional power, India, and middle powers, Australia, South Africa, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan, are assessed. Smaller states are briefly reviewed: Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar; plus island states: Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, Comoros and the Maldives; and East African states: Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia and Djibouti. Finally, prospects for selected external states’ involvement are assessed: France (both a regional and an extra-regional state), the United States, China, Japan and Russia.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    In India, for example, extraordinary measures are applied in order to control information and access to defence officials. Foreign defence attachés have to formally apply before they can meet with Indian military officers.

  2. 2.

    Krishnaswamy Subrahmanyam passed away on 2 February 2011.

  3. 3.

    See GoI (2013, 3–5) for bland statements: “India continues to pursue a robust defence strategy that involves both, the strengthening of its own capabilities as well as engagement in regional and global efforts to promote peace and stability”; “A secure, peaceful and prosperous neighbourhood is central to India’s economic prosperity and security”; and “The Indian Ocean ... is critical to India’s maritime interests and concerns.”

  4. 4.

    Including, for example, the United States, Japan, Australia, Russia, Saudi Arabia, the Chabahar Port Project with Iran and a Border Defence Cooperation Agreement with China in October 2013.

  5. 5.

    This is the case in Britain, Australia, Canada and New Zealand.

  6. 6.

    This information was provided to the author during discussions in New Delhi, early 2014. Senior military officers are appointed to work for Deputy Secretaries, for example, but the reverse never happens. Even junior civil servants are not assigned in roles where they will be subordinate to military officers.

  7. 7.

    Key references to the armed forces in the Constitution of India include a statement that the President exercises “supreme command of the Defence Forces” (Article 53) and the Parliament has “exclusive powers to make laws about any matter on List I Seventh Schedule” (Article 246), which includes the “Defence of India” and naval, military and air forces. An insight into the priorities of the Constitution drafters is provided, whereby the “[p]romotion of international peace and security” (Article 51) comes after the protection of wildlife and monuments (Articles 48A and 49).

  8. 8.

    In line with the ‘Westminster’ system of government inherited by India from the British, the Secretary for Defence is a career bureaucrat, not a politician or a political appointee. He or she is very unlikely to have a military background.

  9. 9.

    Admiral Arun Prakash was Chief of Naval Staff of the Indian Navy and Chairman, Chiefs of Staff Committee from 31 July 2004 to 31 October 2006. He is a prolific and highly respected strategic commentator.

  10. 10.

    Indian military interventions include those in East Pakistan (Bangladesh) in 1971, Sri Lanka in 1987–90, the Maldives in 1988 and Nepal in 2005.

  11. 11.

    In January 2014, India had 7837 uniformed personnel deployed on UN peacekeeping missions. India has been a leading contributor to UN peacekeeping operations since their inception in 1950.

  12. 12.

    MILAN 2014 involved 17 countries and focused upon HADR training. Participating nations included Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, the Maldives, Mauritius, Myanmar, New Zealand, the Philippines, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Thailand.

  13. 13.

    Anti-piracy operations were conducted in support of UN Security Council Resolution 1816 (2008) and subsequent Resolutions.

  14. 14.

    See the security treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States (ANZUS Treaty), signed at San Francisco, 1 September 1951, and entered into force on 29 April 1952.

  15. 15.

    Tentara Nasional Indonesia-Angkatan Laut, that is, Indonesian Navy.

  16. 16.

    See Hughes (2016), which cites the Chabahar Agreement between Iran and India, which will provide India access to Afghanistan and Central Asia via the port of Kalantari in the Iranian city of Chabahar, which is located on the coast of the Gulf of Oman, thus bypassing Pakistan.

  17. 17.

    Many, mainly Western media outlets wrote of then president-elect Trump’s reported conversation with Prime Minister Sharif in derisive terms. Trump was widely criticized as being naïvely obsequious in his praise of Pakistan and its leader.

  18. 18.

    See Christie (2016, 69–70). The population of the African continent is forecast to increase from “1.031 million people in 2010 to 2.393 million people in 2050 … some African countries will treble their numbers”.

  19. 19.

    See Potgieter (2011, 2014) for detailed reviews and analyses of the history and status of the South African Navy.

  20. 20.

    India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka experienced economic growth of around 7 per cent in 2015 and have collectively been referred to as the ‘Bengal Tigers’.

  21. 21.

    See Bateman (2016). Madagascar, Mauritius, the Maldives and the Seychelles all have maritime zones of around 1 million km2 or more.

  22. 22.

    Cyclone Nargis in 2008 reportedly caused 84,500 deaths, with 53,800 people missing and as many as 2.4 million people dislocated.

  23. 23.

    The French forces comprise two surveillance frigates, one light landing ship, two patrol vessels, two tactical transport aircraft and two helicopters, along with around 1900 personnel.

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Cordner, L. (2018). Maritime Security Risk Treatment: India; Indian Ocean Region Middle, Small and Developing States; Major External Powers. In: Maritime Security Risks, Vulnerabilities and Cooperation. New Security Challenges. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62755-7_7

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