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Introduction: International Cooperation and Anti-Human Trafficking

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Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking

Part of the book series: Global Ethics ((GLOETH))

Abstract

In the last decade, the anti-trafficking movement has gained significant momentum not just in placing the discourse of human trafficking at the top of the global agenda, but also in leading the shift towards finding real solutions to the growing new discoveries of modern slavery today. This introductory chapter presents the global overview of human trafficking today and the essence of the current shift towards examining anti-trafficking approaches. It also sets out the rationale and methodology utilised for this empirical study.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Transnational Organized Crime, G.A. Res. 53/111, U.N. GAOR, 53rd Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/53/111 (1998).

  2. 2.

    Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime on the work of its first to eleventh session United Nations General Assembly—Fifty-fifth session, Agenda item 105, Crime prevention and criminal justice (2 November 2000) UN Doc A/55/383.

  3. 3.

    United Nations Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000 [hereafter referred to as the Trafficking Protocol] article 3.

  4. 4.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 3(c).

  5. 5.

    Elizabeth Bruch, ‘Models Wanted: The Search for an Effective Response to Human Trafficking’ (2004) 40 Stanford Journal of International Law, p. 14.

  6. 6.

    UNODC, International Framework for Action to Implement the Trafficking in Persons Protocol (UNODC 2009).

  7. 7.

    Anne Gallagher, ‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary Analysis’ (2001) 23 Human Rights Quarterly No 4, pp. 975–1004.

  8. 8.

    Anne Gallagher, 2001.

  9. 9.

    Jordan, Ann D. (2002): ‘The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol’, International Human Rights Law Group, Washington.

  10. 10.

    Anne Gallagher, 2001; Jordan 2012; ATMG etc.

  11. 11.

    Bridget Anderson, Julianne, O’Connell Davidson, Is Trafficking in Human Beings Demand Driven? A Multi-Country Pilot Study (IOM Research Series No.15, IOM 2003) 12.

  12. 12.

    See Gallagher, ‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking’ (n 10).

  13. 13.

    Maggi Lee, ‘Contested Definitions of Human Trafficking’ (2010) [online] available at: http://www.ungift.org/doc/knowledgehub/resource-centre/Lee_Trafficking_CH_01.pdf (Accessed 13 March 2013).

  14. 14.

    Patrick Belser (2005) ‘Forced Labour and Human Trafficking: Estimating the Profits’ Working Paper, International Labour Office.

  15. 15.

    UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons (UNODC 2009) 6.

  16. 16.

    Maggi Lee, Trafficking and the Global Crime Control (Sage Publications 2011) 39.

  17. 17.

    ILO, Global estimate of forced labour (ILO 2012). This publication refers to estimates of adults in forced labour as being15.5 million.

  18. 18.

    Nicola Piper, ‘A Problem by a Different Name? A Review of Research on Trafficking in South-East Asia and Oceania’ (2005) 43 International Migration, No. (1/2) 203.

  19. 19.

    Human Rights Watch (HRW), ‘Owed Justice: Thai Women Trafficked into Debt Bondage in Japan’ (1 September 2000) [online] available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3bdffcf91.html (Accessed 9 June 2013).

  20. 20.

    Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) Article 2(1) “For the purposes of this Convention the term forced or compulsory labour shall mean all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily” [as emphasised in original document]; Convention concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour (Entry into force: 01 May 1932).

  21. 21.

    ILO, A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour, Report of the Director-General, 93rd Session, Report I (B) (ILO 2005) 5.

  22. 22.

    See ILO, ‘Global estimate of forced labour’ (n 18).

  23. 23.

    Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 1956, Article 1 (a); See also Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Annual Report (2009) 36. [Online] available at: http://www.osce.org/secretariat/67759 (Accessed 5 April 2012).

  24. 24.

    See Lee, Trafficking and the Global Crime Control (n 17) 42; see also Peter Andreas, ‘Smuggling Wars: Law Enforcement and Law Evasion in a Changing World’ (1998) 4 Transnational Organized Crime p. 72; See also Bridget Anderson, Motherhood, Apple Pie and Slavery: Reflections on Trafficking Debates (COMPAS Working paper 2007).

  25. 25.

    As the ILO observes, “Forced labour cannot be equated simply with low wages or poor working conditions. Nor does it cover situations of pure economic necessity, as when a worker feels unable to leave a job because of the real or perceived absence of employment alternatives” see ILO, ‘A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour’ (n 22) 5; Bridget Anderson and B. Rogaly, Forced Labour and Migration (Study prepared by COMPAS in collaboration with the Trades Union Congress 2005) 18.

  26. 26.

    Research Paper on Trafficking in Human Beings for Domestic Servitude in the OSCE Region: Analysis and Challenges Report of the Tenth Alliance against Trafficking in Persons Conference “Unprotected Work, Invisible Exploitation: Trafficking for the Purpose of Domestic Servitude”, Vienna, 17–18 June 2010.

  27. 27.

    Research Paper on Trafficking in Human Beings for Domestic Servitude in the OSCE Region: Analysis and Challenges Report of the Tenth Alliance against Trafficking in Persons Conference “Unprotected Work, Invisible Exploitation: Trafficking for the Purpose of Domestic Servitude”, Vienna, 17–18 June 2010.

  28. 28.

    Scheper-Hughes indicated that it is most prominent in areas in South Africa, India, Brazil and China etc. generally involving the illegal trade of body parts, for example, through kidnapping, the deceit of people who are poor and socially marginalised. See Nancy Scheper-Hughes, ‘Global Traffic in Human Organs’ (2000) 41 Current Anthropology No. 2; See also Jean Allain, ‘Trafficking of Persons for the Removal of Organs and the Admission of Guilt of a South African Hospital’ (2011) 19 Medical Law Review pp. 117–122; For definition, see WHO, Organ trafficking and transplantation pose new challenges (2004) [online] available at: http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/82/9/feature0904/en/ (Accessed 13 March 2012).

  29. 29.

    See The State v. Netcare Kwa-Zulu (Pty) Limited published in 2011.

  30. 30.

    Article 3, paragraph (a) of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons.

  31. 31.

    See the case study of Pastor Gilbert Deya and his ‘miracle babies’ in Mwangi Githahu, ‘Kenya—Clergyman Denies Baby Trafficking Charge’ The Nation (15 August 2004) [online] available at: http://www.religionnewsblog.com/8365/clergyman-denies-baby-trafficking-charge (Accessed 13 March 2012); The Nigerian police recently raided a home allegedly being used to force teenage girls to have babies that were then offered for sale for trafficking or other purposes. See The Telegraph, ‘Nigerian ‘baby factory’ raided and 32 teenage girls freed’ (1 June 2011) [online] available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/nigeria/8550792/Nigerian-baby-factory-raided-and-32-teenage-girls-freed.html (Accessed 13 March 2012).

  32. 32.

    For example, the UK uncovered a case from Nigeria regarding a woman who trafficked a baby in other to acquire benefits. BBC News Online, “Woman jailed for smuggling baby” by June Kelly 16 May 2008, [online] available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk/7404090.stm (Accessed 15 October 2013).

  33. 33.

    See the indicators for THB for forced criminality in Council of the European Union, Note on Handbook on trafficking in human beings—indicators for investigating police forces, 14630/2/14 REV2, Brussels, 18 March 2015. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/jha/2015/10/outcome-of-the-council_en_pdf/

  34. 34.

    See “Nigerian woman bought a baby for £150 to qualify for a council house in Britain” by Rebecca Camber and Beth Hale in the Mail Online http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-566751/Nigerian-woman-bought-baby-150-qualify-council-house-Britain.html#ixzz4hiyzVbRs (Accessed 20 May 2017).

  35. 35.

    Europol, The THB Financial Business Model. Assessing the Current State of Knowledge, July 2015, p. 10. https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/europol_thb_finacial_business_model_2015.pdf

  36. 36.

    Europol, Marriages of convenience. A link between facilitation of illegal migration and THB. Early Warning Notification, 2014/8. https://www.europol.europa.eu/content/marriages-convenience-link-between-facilitation-illegal-immigration-and-thb. See also EU FRA, Addressing forced marriage in the EU: Legal provisions and promising practices, 2014, fra.europa.eu/.../fra-2014-forced-marriage-eu_en.pdf.pdf; Europol, Situation Report Trafficking in human beings in the EU, 2015. Document No: 765175.

  37. 37.

    Elzbieta M. Gozdziak and Micah N. Bump, Data and Research on Human Trafficking: Bibliography of Research-Based Literature. Institute for the Study of International Migration (ISIM), Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, 2008, 4.

  38. 38.

    Kevin Bales, Ending Slavery: How we Free Today’s Slaves (University of California Press, 2007).

  39. 39.

    Joel Quirk, ‘New Approaches to Combating Modern Slavery’ (2009) 31 Human Rights Quarterly, Number 1, p. 258.

  40. 40.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 2(a–c).

  41. 41.

    Organised Crime Convention 2000, article 1.

  42. 42.

    Anne Gallagher, ‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary Analysis’ (2001) 23 Human Rights Quarterly No 4, p. 975; James Hathaway C., ‘The Human Rights Quagmire of Human Trafficking’ (2008) 49 Virginia Journal of International Law (1) pp. 1–59.

  43. 43.

    Jonathan Todres, ‘Widening Our Lens: Incorporating Essential Perspectives in The Fight Against Human Trafficking’ (2011) 33 Mich. J. Int’l L. pp. 53–75; Tom Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a Holistic Approach (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2006).

  44. 44.

    Morehouse, Combating human trafficking (n 43) 75.

  45. 45.

    Organize Crime Convention, Art. 32. Sub-section 1 states that “A Conference of the Parties to the Convention is hereby established to improve the capacity of States Parties to combat transnational organized crime and to promote and review the implementation of this Convention.”

  46. 46.

    See Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 2(c).

  47. 47.

    Janie Chuang, ‘Beyond a Snapshot: Preventing Human Trafficking in the Global Economy’ (2006) 13 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies Issue 1, p. 156.

  48. 48.

    The five most common countries of origin of potential victims of trafficking were Romania, Slovakia, Nigeria, Poland and the Czech Republic. This is based on a report by the UKHTC in 2011. UKHTC: A Baseline Assessment on the Nature and Scale of Human Trafficking in 2011, August 2012: Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA). See also National Referral Mechanism Statistics—End of Year Summary 2016, Published 29th of March 2017.

  49. 49.

    Ibid. Nigeria was ranked one of the top five source countries for trafficking.

  50. 50.

    National Referral Mechanism Statistics—End of Year Summary 2016, p. 5.

  51. 51.

    First responders are the agencies who will refer the child onto the National Referral Mechanism. For children, a first responder may be: a local authority; the UK Border Agency (UKBA); the police; the Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA); Barnardo’s; the NSPCC’s Child Trafficking Advice Centre (CTAC); an agency who deal predominantly with adults who have been trafficked (such as Gangmasters Licensing Authority, The Poppy Project, TARA, Migrant Help, the Medaille Trust, Kalayaan and the Salvation Army).

  52. 52.

    The author’s interpretation of the National Referral Mechanism Statistics Report between January and December 2012—Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA).

  53. 53.

    Lorena Arocha, The Wrong Kind of Victim: One Year On—An Analysis of UK measures to Protect Trafficked Persons (The Anti Trafficking Monitoring Group (ATMG) and Anti-Slavery International 2010).

  54. 54.

    Conclusive grounds decision—Following a positive reasonable grounds decision, the competent authority is required to make a second identification decision to conclusively decide if the child is a victim of trafficking. The competent authority will consider whether, on the balance of probabilities, there is sufficient information to conclude that the child has been trafficked. This decision is usually made within 45 days of the reasonable grounds decision; however, sometimes, this may take longer because of the levels of trauma experienced by some victims and the impact of this on their health. See NSPCC factsheet—The National Referral Mechanism (NRM) (August 2013) available [online] at http://www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/resourcesforprofessionals/childtrafficking/national_referral_mechanism_wda84858.html (Accessed 20 October 2013).

  55. 55.

    The agreed articulation of those rules is contained in the International Law Commission’s draft articles on responsibility of states for internationally wrongful acts with commentaries, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10).

  56. 56.

    James Hathaway C., ‘The Human Rights Quagmire of “Human Trafficking”’ (2008) 49 Virginia Journal of International Law (1) pp. 1–59.

  57. 57.

    Janie Chuang, ‘Beyond a Snapshot: Preventing Human Trafficking in the Global Economy’ (2006) 13 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Issue 1, p. 156.

  58. 58.

    May-Len S. and Marianne T., “Mission Impossible? Voluntary and Dignifie Repatriation of Nigerian Victims of Trafficking” in Thanh-Dam Truong, D. Gasper (eds.) Transnational Migration and Human Security: The Migration-Development-Security Nexus (Springer 2011).

  59. 59.

    UNICRI, Trafficking of Nigerian Girls to Italy; Report of Field Survey in Edo State, Nigeria (UNCRI 2004).

  60. 60.

    Alexis Aronowitz, Human Trafficking, Human Misery: The Global Trade in Human Beings (Praeger 2009).

  61. 61.

    Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovskis, ‘Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking’ (2005) 43 International Migration Issue 1–2, pp. 17–34.

  62. 62.

    Leo A. Goodman, ‘Snowball Sampling’ (1961) 32 Annals of Mathematical Statistics Number 1, pp. 148–170.

  63. 63.

    Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovskis, ‘Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking’ (2005) 43 International Migration Issue 1–2, pp. 17–34.

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    May Ikeora

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Ikeora, M. (2018). Introduction: International Cooperation and Anti-Human Trafficking. In: Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking . Global Ethics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62825-7_1

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