Abstract
This chapter analyses the Brazilian legal regime of the solar energy within the context of increasing energy demand, emerging such renewable energy source as an environmental friendly alternative. For this purpose, the methodology applied, exploratory and qualitative, included a review of the legal literature and an analysis of the Brazilian legislation applicable to this energy source, questioning whether the actions until then adopted are capable of triggering the sustainable use of solar energy. After a strategic review of solar energy in Brazil, efforts are concentrated on the constitutional and legal rules related to this subject. It was observed that, due to pioneering initiatives in urban centers and isolated communities regarding the use of the remarkable potential of solar energy, the National Electric Energy Agency has edited in 2012 the Normative Resolution No. 482, which, in synthesis, establishes general conditions for the access of micro and minigeneration of power to distribution systems. In parallel, it was also possible to observe the emergence of legal propositions in the Brazilian state capitals targeted to promote solar energy, whether in terms of mandatory statutes, authorization or financial incentives. However, despite this impetus, the solar energy resulted in only 0.2% of the electricity generation in 2015. Lastly, there is a great effort to be held within the framework of the National Energy Policy with regard to the strategy to develop solar energy in the country, notably to implement programs for planning and for technical-financial support to the prosumers, raising them to the quality of key participant in this process.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
José Goldemberg (2010) defines energy as “the ability to produce transformations within a system (mechanical, physical, chemical or biological)”, that can be materialized in various forms (radiation, nuclear, chemical, thermal, mechanical, electrical, magnetic and elastic energies), which are mostly derived from solar source and can be converted to each other or even stored. In the socio-economic perspective, the author highlights that “energy is an essential ingredient for the development”. The energy systems are understood as the association, in the spatial and temporal plans, among energy sources, with the purpose of providing energy services, an important component in terms of infrastructure. The analysis of the energy systems integration represents an important strategy in terms of sustainability, because, in the quest for efficiency, it controls technical, economic, environmental and regulatory variables (O’Malley et al. 2012).
- 2.
According to Silva (2015), “About 80% of the photovoltaic cells are made from crystalline silicon; 20% use thin films. On the other hand, the crystalline silicon is obtained from quartz, which must be purified to solar grade, which requires 99.9999% of purity. Brazil has high purity quartz deposits, but it still has not developed the necessary technology for obtaining silicon with solar grade”.
- 3.
According to the Decree No. 6.353 of 2008 “it is understood by reserve power the one intended to increase the security of electricity supplied to the National Interconnected System (SIN), from power plants specially commissioned for this purpose”.
- 4.
According to the International Energy Agency, energy security is defined as “uninterrupted availability of energy sources at affordable prices” (IEA 2011). In the legal literature there are different definitions about the concept of energy security, which often emphasize certain filters, such as sources of risk and scope of the impacts (Winzer 2011). Expanding the discussion, Yergin (2006) notes that the evolution of the concept indicates its close connection with geopolitical factors, contemporaneously related to macro issues such as economic integration, vulnerability in the supply and terrorism.
- 5.
Brazil ratified the United Nations Framework Convention about Climate Change as well as the Kyoto Protocol, and adopted in 2009, the National Policy about Climate Change (Law No. 12.187), that established as a voluntary national commitment: actions to mitigate the greenhouse gases emissions in order to reduce by 36.1% (36 point 1%) and 38.9% (38 point 9%) its projected emissions until 2020. Recently, in the 2015 Paris Agreement, Brazil set its target to 37% by 2025 and 43% by 2030 regarding emissions reduction.
- 6.
Around 14%. The capacity factor is the ratio between the effective energy production of a power plant during a certain period of time and the maximum production capacity in this same period. CSP technology can have a capacity factor of over 20%, depending on the installed capacity.
- 7.
Worldwide, there are two main applications of EFV systems: the isolated systems, which are not connected to the local utility distribution network (domestic or not) and the ones connected to the network (distributed generation, where electricity consumers are also entitled to generate electricity and feed into the distribution utility’s network the amount of electricity generated but not consumed, or centralized, which act as centralized power stations) (Januzzi et al. 2009).
- 8.
Internationally, it should be mentioned the following initiatives: International Energy Agency (AIE) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable Energy Policy Network for the Twenty-first Century (REN21), the North American Space Agency National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA), which includes the participation, among other institutions, of the United Nations Environment Program (PNUMA). In the Brazilian scenario, it should be mentioned: Atlas Solar metric of Brazil (Federal University of Pernambuco—UFPE, Hydroelectric Company of São Francisco (CHESF) and Reference Center for Solar Energy and Wind Energy Sérgio de Salvo Brito—CRESESB); Atlas of Solar Radiation in Brazil (National Institute of Meteorology—INMET and Solar Energy Laboratory—LABSOLAR, the Federal University of Santa Catarina—UFSC), among others.
- 9.
“Brazil presents one of the best conditions for the use of solar energy, with one of the world’s largest medium-sized radiation”.
- 10.
According to FGV Projects, energy systems involve evolutionary innovations and of rupture. The evolutionary ones are inserted in the production system and in the use of existing energetic, like with the smart electric network (smart grid). The breaking innovations derive from technological discontinuities, originating a new organization of the production systems and of the energy systems (FGV 2011).
- 11.
There are, however, dissenting arguments, arguing that if the residential sector is one of the biggest consumers of the total electricity produced, soon the EFV will reach sufficient scale to generate a stable power supply service with a low cost (Miranda 2013).
- 12.
These are federal taxes: IPI (Tax on Industrialized Products), IOF (Tax on Credit Operations)—and State—ICMS (Tax on Circulation of Goods).
- 13.
It should be mentioned the Proposal for Constitutional Amendment (PEC) 97 of 2015, which aims to modify the articles 20 and 21 of the Federal Constitution of 1988, in order to transform the potential of wind energy in Union’s heritage, demanding the payment of royalties for its exploitation.
- 14.
There are several technical studies about the issue, but the legal analyses are rare. It is worth quoting Fiorillo’s reflection when he analyzed the solar energy as an environmental good, alerting to the need to observe the constitutional commandments in its exploitation, notably the precaution and prevention legal principles (Fiorillo 2011). However, the author does not face other relevant constitutional themes, such as the appropriation of the sunlight and the systematic management of its use.
- 15.
Reserve energy was instituted in the Brazilian energy system in 2008, with the goal to increase the Brazilian energy security and complement the electricity offered via regular tendering processes. It is worth mentioning the residual nature of the energy potential offered in the LERs, which demonstrates that solar energy has not yet acquired confidence from the regulators nor prominent importance in the regulatory agenda.
- 16.
See Fig. 2—Annual average of solar radiation in Brazil.
- 17.
The power supply in isolated systems is regulated by Law No. 12.111 of 2010 and the Decree No. 7.426 of 2010, according to which an isolated system is defined as a power distribution system not connected to the National Interconnected System (the Brazilian grid) for technical or economic reasons.
- 18.
Portal Brasil, 11 Nov. 2015. “Program Light for All reached 15.6 million Brazilians in 12 years”. Available at http://www.brasil.gov.br/infraestrutura/2015/11/programa-luz-para-todos-chegou-a-15-6-milhoes-de-brasileiros-em-12-anos. Access on 05 Jan 2016.
- 19.
Available from: http://www20.caixa.gov.br/Paginas/Noticias/Noticia/Default.aspx?newsID=1686. Accessed on 06 Feb 2016.
- 20.
Available from: https://www.ambienteenergia.com.br/index.php/2016/10/bndes-aumenta-em-80-financiamento-para-projetos-de-energia-solar/30410. Accessed on 11 Apr 2017. In terms of energy efficiency, BNDES offers a special line, entitled Support for Energy Efficiency Projects (PROESCO), which finances energy efficiency projects and the conversion of fossil sources for renewable. Available from: http://www.bndes.gov.br/SiteBNDES/bndes/bndes_pt/Institucional/Sala_de_Imprensa/Noticias/2015/Energia/20150728_eficienciaenergetica.html. Accessed on 06 Feb 2016.
- 21.
Bercovici (2006) alerts it is needed to expose the “myth of neutrality” of the Public Administration, considered an apolitical, merely technical organization, which gave birth, in the legal field, to a meaningless formalism and resulted in the process of state distancing to the dynamic reality. Howlett and Ramesh (1995) diagnose that this artificial setting of public policy generally takes one of the following formats: regulatory, constitutive, distributive or redistributive.
- 22.
Among the improvements provided by the Normative Resolution No. 687, there is the expansion of the installed capacity characterized as minigeneration, from 1 to 5 MW; the expansion of the expiration date of the energy credits, from 36 to 60 months; the possibility for condominiums and cooperatives to join the compensation system.
- 23.
Given that there is no energy trade for the cases of mini and microgeneration, but mere free loan, the incidence of ICMS on that operation would be unconstitutional (Silva 2016). The ICMS Agreement No. 16/15, of the National Council of Financial Policy, recognizes this situation and authorizes the ICMS exemption on the operations related to electricity flow and subject of the compensation system established by ANEEL’s Normative Resolution No. 482/2012. As far as April 2017, 18 States and the Federal District have joined the Agreement.
- 24.
Jannuzzi and Poppe (2011) note that with regard to solar photovoltaic and thermal energy of high temperatures, if, on the one hand, the country has “a large industrial park that extracts and refines the quartz, turning it into metallurgical grade silicon (...), it still does not have companies that transform metallurgical grade silicon in solar, as well as companies for manufacturing cells and systems” and in relation to the generation of solar energy at high temperatures the researches are still incipient in the country. In relation to low-temperature solar thermal energy, the country dominates the conventional flat collectors’ technology; however, there is a need to develop other technologies with a higher degree of sophistication (Jannuzzi and Poppe 2011).
- 25.
References
Abreu YV et al (orgs.) (2010) Energia, economia, rotas tecnológicas: textos selecionados. Eumet.Net, Universidade de Málaga, Málaga
Bego DJB (2010) Universalização dos serviços de energia elétrica: evolução histórica e necessidades de regulação. In: Castro MF, Loureiro LGK (Orgs.) Direito da energia elétrica no Brasil – aspectos institucionais, regulatórios e socioambientais. ANEEL e UnB, Brasília
Bercovici G (2006) Planejamento e políticas públicas: por uma nova compreensão do papel do Estado. In: Bucci MPD (org.) Políticas Públicas: Reflexões sobre o Conceito Jurídico. Saraiva, São Paulo
Bercovici G (2012) A Exploração dos Potenciais de Energia Hidráulica e o seu “Aproveitamento Ótimo”. In: González LMA, Tôrres HT (orgs.). Tributos, Aguas e Infraestructuras, 1st edn. Atelier, Barcelona, pp 255–271
Clausen F, Hörnicke J, Schäfer-Stradowsky S (2013) Wer macht mit bei der Energiewende? – Förderinstrumente für Strom aus erneuerbaren Energien im internationalen Überblick. In: Zeitschrift für Neues Energierecht – ZNER, Vol. 6
Da Schio N (2013) Local government regulation ordinances and laws to promote renewable energy. In: IRENA, International Renewable Energy Agency; ICLEI, International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives. Renewable Energy Policy in Cities: Selected Case Studies
David SMGR (2014) Programa de universalização de energia elétrica: o desenvolvimento da política pública no Brasil. In: Da Rocha FA (org.) Temas relevantes no direito de energia elétrica – Tomo III. Synergia Editora, Rio de Janeiro
De Castro N, Dantas G, Moszkowicz M, Rosental R (2016) Perspectives and challenges of the diffusion of micro and mini generation photovoltaic solar in Brazil. Publit, Rio de Janeiro
de Lucena AFP, Szklo AS, Schaeffer R, de Souza, RR, Borba BSMC, da Costa, IVL, Júnior AOP, da Cunha SHF (2009) The vulnerability of renewable energy to climate change in Brazil. Energy Policy 37:879–889
EPE (2011) Balanço Energético Nacional 2012 – Ano base 2011: Resultados Preliminares. EPE, Rio de Janeiro. Available at https://ben.epe.gov.br/downloads/Resultados_Pre_BEN_2012.pdf
EPE (2014) Nota Técnica DEA 19/14 – Inserção da Geração Fotovoltaica Distribuída no Brasil – Condicionantes e Impactos. Rio de Janeiro. Available at http://www.epe.gov.br/mercado/Documents/S%C3%A9rie%20Estudos%20de%20Energia/DEA%2019%20%20%20Inser%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20da%20Gera%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Fotovoltaica%20Distribu%C3%ADda%20no%20Brasil%20%20Condicionantes%20e%20Impactos%20VF%20%20%28Revisada%29.pdf. Accessed 2 Jan 2016
EPE (2015) Balanço Energético Nacional 2015: Ano base 2014/Empresa de Pesquisa Energética. EPE, Rio de Janeiro. Avaiable at https://ben.epe.gov.br/downloads/Relatorio_Final_BEN_2015.pdf
EPE (2016) Balanço Energético Nacional 2016. Available at https://ben.epe.gov.br/downloads/S%C3%ADntese%20do%20Relat%C3%B3rio%20Final_2016_Web.pdf. Accessed 10 Apr 2017
FGV Projetos (2011) Energia elétrica e inovações energéticas. jul. n. 01. FGV, Rio de Janeiro
Fiorillo CAP (2011) Energia solar como bem ambiental. Instituto Geodireito. http://www.geodireito.com/noticias/opiniao-energia-solar-como-bem-ambiental. Accessed 30 Jan 2016
Fraunhofer I (2015) Current and future cost of photovoltaics – long-term scenarios for market development, system process and LCPE of utility-scale PV systems. Study on behalf of Agora Energiewende. Avaiable at https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/AgoraEnergiewende_Current_and_Future_Cost_of_PV_Feb2015_web.pdf
Freitas BMR, Hollanda L (2015) Micro e Minigeração no Brasil: Viabilidade Econômica e Entraves do Setor. mai. n. 01. FGV, Rio de Janeiro
Goldemberg J (2010) Energia e desenvolvimento sustentável. Série Sustentabilidade 04. Blucher, São Paulo
Guimarães LN de MR (2011) A efetividade do Programa Nacional de universalização do acesso e uso da energia elétrica – Luz para todos. Revista Brasileira de Políticas Públicas 1(2)
Hémery D et al (1993) Uma História da Energia. trad. e atual. Sérgio de Salvo Brito. Editora Universidade de Brasília, Brasília
Howlett M, Ramesh M (1995) Studying public policy: policy cycles and policy subsystems. Oxford University Press, Oxford
IEA (2011) The IEA model of short-term energy security. International Energy Agency, Paris
IEA (2015) World energy outlook special report: energy and climate change. International Energy Agency, Paris
IRENA (2013) Renewable energy auctions in developing countries. International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi
Januzzi GM et al (2009) Sistemas Fotovoltaicos Conectados à Rede Elétrica no Brasil: Panorama da Atual Legislação. Relatório da International Energy Initiative, Campinas
Jannuzzi GM, Poppe MK (2011) Desenvolvimento, Cooperação e Transferência de Tecnologias Energéticas de Baixa Emissão. In: Mudança do clima no Brasil: aspectos econômicos, sociais e regulatórios, pp 195–210
Lovins A (1976) Energy strategy: the road not taken? Foreign Aff 55:65–96
Masson V et al (2014) Solar panels reduce both global warming and urban heat island. Front Environ Sci 2:1–10. Available at http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fenvs.2014.00014/full. Accessed 30 Jan 2016
Miranda RFC (2013) Análise da Inserção de Geração Distribuída de Energia Solar Fotovoltaica no Setor Residencial Brasileiro. Dissertação de Mestrado. UFRJ/COPPE, Rio de Janeiro, 291 f
Motta RS et al (2011) Mudança do Clima no Brasil: aspectos econômicos, sociais e regulatórios. IPEA, Brasília. http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/livros/livros/livro_mudancadoclima_port.pdf
O’Malley M et al (2012) Energy systems integration: a convergence of ideas. Technical Paper, jul. U.S.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory
ONS (2016) Plano da Operação Energética 2016/2020 - PEN 2016. Sumário Executivo. Available at http://www.ons.org.br/AcervoDigitalDocumentosEPublicacoes/PEN2016_SumarioExecutivo.pdf
Purvin GJF (2010) A propriedade no direito ambiental, 4th edn. Revista dos Tribunais, São Paulo
REN21 (2015) Renewables 2015: Global Status Report. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, Paris
Rüther R, Zilles R (2011) Making the case for grid-connected photovoltaics in Brazil. Energy Policy 39(3):1027–1030
Scheer H (2010) Der energetische Imperativ. Kunstmann, Munique
Silva RM (2015) Energia Solar no Brasil: dos incentivos aos desafios. Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas do Senado, Brasília. Available at www.senado.leg.br/estudos. Accessed 8 Nov 2015
Silva PM de M (2016) ICMS sobre a micro e minigeração distribuída de energia elétrica – Uma ponderação sobre a não incidência. In: da Rocha FA (org.) Temas relevantes no direito de energia elétrica – Tomo V. Synergia Editora, Rio de Janeiro
Spertino F, Di Leo P, Cocina V (2014) Which are the constraints to the photovoltaic grid-parity in the main European markets? Solar Energy 105:390–400
Winzer C (2011) Conceptualizing Energy Security. EPRG Working Paper in Economics. Cambridge
WWF (2015) Desafios e Oportunidades para a energia solar fotovoltaica no Brasil: recomendações para políticas públicas. WWF, Brasília
Yergin D (2006) Ensuring energy security. Foreign Affairs, mar.-abr
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Teles da Silva, S., Dutra, C., Guimarães, L.N.d.M.R. (2018). Solar Energy and the Dawn of ‘Solar Cities’ in Brazil. In: Fontoura Costa, J., Rosado de Sá Ribeiro, M., Xavier Junior, E., Rocha Gabriel, V. (eds) Energy Law and Regulation in Brazil. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73456-9_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73456-9_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-73455-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-73456-9
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)