Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Introduction to Studying 2012 Egyptian Election

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Campaign Professionalism during Egypt’s 2012 Presidential Election

Part of the book series: Political Campaigning and Communication ((PCC))

  • 170 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter explains the importance of the 2012 Egyptian elections and gives an overview for the whole book. The chapter highlights why it’s important to study campaigns in order to understand the outcome of the 2012 election as well as the longer-term political situation in Egypt. The chapter explains this by highlighting literature on campaign functions in elections and campaign professionalism (mainly what it means and how to measure it). In addition, it highlights the validity of using the professionalisation index in studying campaign professionalism. The chapter also discusses the relationship between professionalisation and democracy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ansolabehere, S. and Iyengar, S., 1995. Going negative: how political advertisements shrink and polarize the electorate. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartels, L., 1996. Uninformed votes: information effects in presidential elections. American Journal of Political Science, 40, 194–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartels, L., 2006. Priming and persuasion in presidential campaigns. In: Brady, H. and Richard, J., eds. Capturing campaign effects. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 78–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, W. and Entman, R., eds., 2001. Mediated politics: communication in the future of democracy. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg-Schlosser, D., 2009. Long waves and conjunctures of democratization. In: Haerpfer, C., Bernhagen, P., Inglehart, R. and Welzel, C., eds. Democratization. New York: Oxford University Press, 41–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernhagen, P., 2009. Measuring democracy and democratization. In: Haerpfer, C., Bernhagen, P., Inglehart, R. and Welzel, C., eds. Democratization. New York: Oxford University Press, 24–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulianne, S., 2009. Does internet use affect engagement? A meta-analysis of research. Political Communication, 26, 193–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, T., Stevens Redburn, F. and Guo, K., eds., 2006. Modernizing democracy: innovations in citizen participation (transformational trends in governance and democracy). Armonk: M. E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carnegie, P., 2010. The road from authoritarianism to democratization in Indonesia. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Catt, H., 1999. Democracy in practice. London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, J., Shah, D., McLeod, J., McLeod, D., Scholl, R. and Gotlieb, M., 2009. Campaigns, reflection, and deliberation: advancing an O-S-R-O-R model of communication effects. Communication Theory, 19, 66–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claassen, R., 2011. Political awareness and electoral campaigns: maximum effects for minimum citizens? Political Behavior, 33 (2), 203–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coppedge, M. and Reinicke, W., 1990. Measuring polyarchy. Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1), 51–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Altman, A., Bernhard, M., Fish, S., Hicken, A., Kroenig, M., Lindberg, S., McMann, K., Paxton, P., Semetko, H., Skaaning, S.-E., Staton, J. and Teorell, J., 2011. Conceptualizing and measuring democracy: a new approach. Perspectives on Politics, 9 (2), 247–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutright, P., 1963. National political development: measurement and analysis. American Sociological Review [online], 28 (2), 253–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cwalina, W., Falkowski, A. and Newman, B., 2011. Political marketing: theoretical and strategic foundations. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, R. A., 1998. Democracy and its critics. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, R., 1971. Polyarchy: participation and opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlgren, P., 2005. The internet, public spheres, and political communication: dispersion and deliberation. Political Communication, 22 (2), 147–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. 2009. Forward by Larry Diamond. In: Lindberg, S., ed. Democratization by elections: a new mode of transition. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, xiii–xix.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. and Myers, R., eds., 2001. Elections and democracy in greater China. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrova, D., Shehata, A., Strömback, J. and Nord, L., 2014. The effects of digital media on political knowledge and participation in election campaigns: evidence from panel data. Communication Research, 41 (1), 95–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elsheikh, D., 2011. New form of opposition in Egypt … from movements to revolution. Thesis (MA). SOAS, University of London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, R. and Wlezien, C., 2012. The timeline of presidential elections: how campaigns do and do not matter. University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, D. and Schmitt-Beck, R., eds., 2002. Do political campaigns matter?: campaign effects in elections and referendums. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, D., 1996. Campaign strategies and tactics. In: LeDuc, L., Niemi, R. and Norris, P., eds. Comparing democracies: elections and voting in global perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 160–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishkin, J., 1991. Democracy and deliberation: new directions for democratic reform. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freedom House, 2015. Methodology. Freedom in the World 2012 [online]. Washington, DC: Freedom House. Available from: https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world-2012/methodology [Accessed 10 October 2016].

  • Fukuyama, F., 1992. The end of history and the last man. New York: Avon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gamson, W., 2001. Promoting political engagement. In: Bennett, W. and Entman, R., eds. Mediated politics: communication in the future of democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 56–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gasiorowski, M., 1996. An overview of the political regime change dataset. Comparative Political Studies, 29 (4), 469–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, R. and Römmele, A., 2001. Changing campaign communications: a party-centered theory of professionalized campaigning. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 6 (4), 31–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, R. and Römmele, A., 2009. Measuring the professionlisation of political campaigning. Party Politics, 15 (3), 321–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, R., 2010. ‘Open source campaigning?’: UK party organisations and the use of the new media in the 2010 general election [online]. Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC 2010. Available from: https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=23612612610112409402602612309208012603904106907700006006609108509710212211000510009505800005704706102306009803010907008700412405607308201107408009109408311908102709807305407912407010911700009208098070079088008110094123019027121029084088081027080088089&EXT=pdf [Accessed 1 June 2016].

  • Gidengil, E., Blais, A., Nevitte, A. and Nadeau, R., 2002. Priming and campaign context: evidence from recent Canadian elections. In: Farrell, D. and Schmitt-Beck, R., eds. Do political campaigns matter: campaign effects in elections and referendums. New York: Routledge, 76–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gil de Zúñiga, H., Veenstra, A., Vraga, E. and Shah, D., 2010. Digital democracy: reimagining pathways to political participation. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 7 (1), 36–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, D., 2016. Citizen activism and civil society. In how change happens. Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gronbeck, B., 1978. The functions of presidential campaigning. Communication Monographs, 45 (4), 268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamelink, C., 2007. The professionalisation of political communication: democracy at stake? In: Negrine, R., Mancini, P., Holtz-Bacha, C. and Pappathanassopoulos eds. The professionalisation of political communication. Bristol: Intellect, 179–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, J. and Denton, R., 2010. Communicator-in-chief: how Barack Obama used new media technology to win the White House. Lanham, MD: Lexington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herkman, J., 2010. Re-evaluating the relationship between politics and popular media. Media, Culture and Society, 32 (4), 701–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hermet, G., Rose, R. and Rouquie, A., eds., 1978. Elections without choice. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holbrook, T., 1996. Do campaigns matter? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, P., 2006. New media campaigns and the managed citizen. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huntington, S., 1991. The third wave: democratization in the late twentieth century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S. and Kinder, D., 1987. News that matters. University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S. and Simon, A., 2000. New perspectives and evidence on political communication and campaign effects. Annual Review of Psychology, 51 (1), 149–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, R., 1997. Democracy and elections. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kekic, L., 2007. The economist intelligence unit’s index of democracy. Democracy index 2007 [online]. Available from: http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/DEMOCRACY_INDEX_2007_v3.pdf [Accessed 10 September 2015].

  • Koch, T., 2011. The professionlisation of political marketing – a detriment to the democratic process? Department of Media and Communication, University of Leicester. ResearchGate [online]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215669646_The_Professionalisation_of_Political_Marketing_-_A_Detriment_to_the_Democratic_Process [Accessed 1 June 2016].

  • Lazarsfeld, P., Berelson, B. and Gaudet, H., 1944. The people’s choice: how the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Duell, Sloan, & Pearce.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Q. and Reuveny, F., 2006. Democracy and environmental degradation. International Studies Quarterly, 50 (4), 935–956.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A., 1999. Patterns of democracy: government forms and performance in thirty-six countries. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lilleker, D. G. and Negrine, R., 2002. Professionalisation: of what? Since when? By whom? Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 7 (4), 98–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lilleker, D. G., Tenscher, J. and Stetka, V., 2015. Towards hypermedia campaigning? Perceptions of new media’s importance for campaigning by party strategists in comparative perspective. Information, Communication & Society, 18 (7), 747–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, S., 2009. Democratization by elections: a new mode of transition. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linz, J., 1978. Non-competitive elections in Europe. In: Hermet, G., Rose, R. and Rouquie, A., eds. Elections without choice. New York: Wiley, 36–65.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Linz, Juan J., and Stepan, A. C., 1996. Problems of democratic transition and consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and post-communist Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lustokar, E., 2009. Reinforcing informal institutions through authoritarian elections: insights from Jordan. Middle East Law and Governance, 1 (1), 3–37. [Accessed 8 October 2015].

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mancini, P., 1999. New frontiers in political professionalism. Political Communication, 16 (3), 231–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, M. G. and Cole, B. R., 2011. Global report 2011: conflict, governance, and state fragility [online]. Vienna, VA: Center for Systematic Peace. Available from: http://www.systemicpeace.org/vlibrary/GlobalReport2011.pdf [Accessed 12 September 2014].

  • Medvic, S., 2010. Campaigns and elections, players and processes. Boston: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mykkänen, J. and Tenscher, J., 2014. Adding or weighting? Alternatives to measure parties’ campaign professionalism [online]. European Consortium for Political Research General Conference, Glasgow 5 September 2014. Available from: https://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/7582fc4f-5b0a-48f8-83dc-5204237a7d16.pdf [Accessed 1 June 2016].

  • Negrine, R., Mancini, P., Holtz-Bacha, C. and Pappathanassopoulos eds., 2007. The professionalisation of political communication. Bristol: Intellect

    Google Scholar 

  • Nie, N., 2001. Sociability, interpersonal relations, and the internet: reconciling conflicting findings. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 420–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P., 2000. A virtuous circle: political communications in postindustrial societies. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P., 2001. Digital divide: civic engagement, information poverty and the internet worldwide. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P., 2002. Democratic phoenix: reinventing political activism. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P., 2004a. The evolution of election campaigns: eroding political engagement? Conference on Political Communications in the 21st Century, University of Otago, New Zealand, January 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P., 2004b. Political communications and democratic politics. In: Bartle, J. and Griffiths, D., eds. Political communication transformed: from Morrison to Mandelson. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 163–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P., 2005. Did the media matter? Persuasion, priming and mobilization effects in the 2005 British general election campaign [online]. Conference of the Elections, Parties and Public Opinion Group of the PSA (EPOP). University of Essex, September 2005. Available from: http://www.essex.ac.uk/bes/epop%202005/papers/epop%202005%20did%20the%20media%20matter.pdf [Accessed 12 October 2015].

  • O’Donnell, G., 1994. Delegative democracy. Journal of Democracy, 5 (1), 55–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papacharissi, Z., 2002. The virtual sphere: the internet as a public sphere. Online Media & Society, 4 (1), 9–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pateman, C., 1970. Participation and the democratic theory. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrocik, J., 1996. Issue ownership in presidential elections with a 1980 case study. American Journal of Political Science, 40, 825–850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfau, M., Houston, J. and Semmler, S., 2005. Presidential election campaigns and American democracy. American Behavioural Scientist, 49 (1), 48–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poe, S. and Tate, C., 1994. Repression of human rights to personal integrity in the 1980s: a global analysis. American Political Science Review, 88 (4), 853–872.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popesco, M. and Toka, G., 2002. Campaign effects and media monopoly: the 1994 and 1998 parliamentary elections in Hungary. In: Farrell, D. and Schmitt-Beck, R., eds. Do political campaigns matter?: Campaign effects in elections and referendums. London: Routledge, 58–75.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G., 2000. Elections as instrument of democracy: majoritarian and proportional visions. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prezeworski, A., 1999. Minimalist conception of democracy: a defence. In: Shapiro, I. and Hacker Cordon, C., eds. Democracy’s value. Cambridge University Press, 23–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R., 2000. Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rayner, J., 2014, What about winning? Looking into the blind spot of the theory of campaign professionlisation. Journal of Political Marketing, 13 (4), 334–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R. and Mossawir, H., 1967. Voting and elections: a functional analysis. Political Studies, 15 (2), 173–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadiki, L., 2009. Rethinking Arab democratization, democracy without elections. Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Scammell, M., 1998. The wisdom of the war room: US campaigning and Americanization. Media, Culture and Society, 20 (2), 251–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sen, A., 1999. Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumpeter, J. A., 1943. Capitalism, socialism and democracy. London: George Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strömbäck, J., 2007. Political marketing and professionalized campaigning: a conceptual analysis. Journal of Political Marketing, 6 (2–3), 49–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strömbäck, J., 2009. Selective professionalisation of political campaigning. A test of the party-centered theory of professionalised campaigning in the context of the 2006 Swedish election. Political Studies, 57 (1), 95–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, D. and Mancini, P., 1996. Politics, media, and modern democracy: an international study of innovations in electoral campaigning and their consequences. Westport: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tenscher, J., 2013. First- and second-order campaigning: Evidence from Germany. European Journal of Communication, 28 (3), 241–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tenscher, J. and Mykkänen, J., 2014. Two levels of campaigning: an empirical test of the party-centred theory of professionalisation. Political Studies, 62 (S1), 20–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tenscher, J., 2007. Professionalisierung nach Wahl: Ein Vergleich der Parteienkampagnen im Rahmen der jüngsten Bundestags- und Europawahlkämpfe in Deutschland. In: Brettschneider, F., Niedermayer, O. and Weßels, B., eds. Die Bundestagswahl 2005: Analysen des Wahlkampfes und der Wahlergebnisse. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 65–95.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tenscher, J., Koc-Michalska, K., Lilleker, D., Mykkänen, J., Walter, A., Findor, A., Jalali, C. and Róka, J., 2016. The professionals speak: practitioners’ perspectives on professional election campaigning. European Journal of Communication, 31 (2), 95–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tenscher, J., Mykkänen, J. and Moring, T., 2012. Modes of professional campaigning: a four-country comparison in the European parliamentary elections, 2009. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 17 (2), 145–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, D., 2002. Just elections: creating a fair electoral process in the United States. University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanhanen, T., 2000. A new data set for measuring democracy, 1810–1998. Journal of Peace Research, 37 (2), 251–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanhanen, T., 2003. Democratisation: a comparative analysis of 170 countries. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vavreck, L., 2000. How does it all ‘turn out’? Exposure to attack advertising, campaign interest, and participation in American presidential elections. In: Bartels, L. and Vavreck, L., eds. Campaign reform: insights and evidence. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 79–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verba, S., Schlozman, K. and Brady, H., 1995. Voice and equality: civic volunteerism in American politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Way, L., 2005. Ukraine’s orange revolution: Kuchma’s failed authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 16 (2), 131–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, L., 2002. Democratization: theory and experience. Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zaller, J., 1992. The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zihala, M., ed., 2003. Democracy: the greatest good for the greatest number. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK

    Dalia Elsheikh

Authors
  1. Dalia Elsheikh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Elsheikh, D. (2018). Introduction to Studying 2012 Egyptian Election. In: Campaign Professionalism during Egypt’s 2012 Presidential Election. Political Campaigning and Communication. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75954-8_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation