Abstract
This article offers a systematic review of educational and sociological research in Turkey on the relationship between race/ethnicity and educational inequality between 1980 and 2017. A major challenge regarding this research topic is that ethnic differences were a taboo topic in Turkey until recently, so systematic information on ethnic differences is lacking. Still, three research traditions could be distinguished, namely research that focuses on (1) regional differences, (2) language differences and (3) religious differences. The existing studies predominantly embrace a deficit perspective and quantitative research methods and a more positivistic approach to social sciences. Currently, alarming developments are visible: improvement in minority language rights in education is halted and the violent armed conflicts have started again. Finally, the recent migration developments, with the influx of three million Syrians, remain largely out of the scope of the literature.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
In Turkey, as it will be explained in details throughout the chapter, it is not possible to find official statistics about the size of different ethnic and religious minorities. The population census does not ask questions about ethnicity, religion or denomination.
- 2.
Turkish Demographic and Health Survey (TDHS), conducted every 5 years by the Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies, is a nationally representative survey and it is one of the largest datasets available to study social disparities in educational outcomes, although the main focus of this survey is on reproductive health. Moreover, it does not directly ask ethnicity, however questions regarding language spoken at home and the language of the survey can be used to determine linguistic minorities. More information about these surveys can be found in their reports: http://www.hips.hacettepe.edu.tr/eng/population_survey.shtml.
- 3.
Sunnism is the dominant denomination of Islam endorsed by the majority of the Turkish population. Alevism is a more liberal and left-leaning orientation of Islam endorsed by a minority of the Turkish Population. They are officially considered not as a denomination of Islam but rather as a folkloric tradition in Turkey. However, it should also be noted that no official statistics are kept regarding the size of different groups. The most common estimate of Alevis is around 15%, with a range from 3% (self-identification) to 19% (religiously significant figures measured) (Carkoglu 2005).
Bibliography
Agirdag, O. (2010). Exploring Bilingualism in a Monolingual School System: Insights from Turkish and Native Students from Belgian Schools. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 31(3), 307–321.
Agirdag, O., Yazici, Z., & Sierens, S. (2015). Trends in Pre-school Enrolment in Turkey: Unequal Access and Differential Consequences. Comparative Education, 51(4), 537–554.
Akar, H. (2010). Challenges for Schools in Communities with Internal Migration Flows: Evidence from Turkey. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(3), 263–276.
Aksu-Koç, A., Erguvanlı-Taylan, E., & Bekman, S. (2002). Need Assessment in Early Childhood Education and an Evaluation of Children’s Level of Linguistic Competence in Three Provinces of Turkey (Research Report No. 00R101). Boğaziçi University & Mother Child Education Foundation. Istanbul: Boğaziçi University
Alacaci, C., & Erbas, A. K. (2010). Unpacking the Inequality Among Turkish Schools: Findings from PISA 2006. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(2), 182–192.
Altinyelken, H. K., Çayır, K., & Agirdag, O. (2015). Turkey at a Crossroads: Critical Debates and Issues in Education. Comparative Education, 51(4), 473–483.
Altuntaş, O. (2017, September 18). Turkey’s New School Year: Jihad In, Evolution Out. BBCnews.http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41296714
Arat, Y. (1998). Islamists and Political Change in Turkey. Political Psychology, 19(19), 117–131.
Aşlamacı, I., & Kaymakcan, R. (2017). A Model for Islamic Education from Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools. British Journal of Religious Education, 39(3), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2015.1128390.
Berberoğlu, G., & Kalender, İ. (2005). Öğrenci başarisinin yillara, okul türlerine, bölgelere göre incelenmesi: ÖSS ve Pisa analizi [Investigation of Student Achievement Across Eyars, School Types and Regions: The OSS and PISA Analyses]. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama, 4(7), 21–35.
Buyruk, H. (2015). Current Developments in School Education in Turkey: Education ‘Reforms’ and Teacher Trade Union Responses. Forum, 57(2), 147–166. https://doi.org/10.15730/forum.2015.57.2.147.
Çarkoğlu, A. (2005). Political Preferences of the Turkish Electorate: Reflections of an Alevi–Sunni Cleavage. Turkish Studies, 6(2), 273–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683840500119593.
Çayır, K. (2014). Who Are We? Identity, Citizenship and Rights in Turkey’s Textbooks. Istanbul: History Foundation.
Çelik, Z., Gümüş, S., & Gür, B. S. (2017). Moving Beyond a Monotype Education in Turkey: Major Reforms in the Last Decade and Challenges Ahead. In Y.-K. Cha et al. (Eds.), Multicultural Education in Glocal Perspectives (pp. 103–119). Singapore: Springer Nature.
Çetingül, P. I. T., & Dülger, I. (2006). ÖSS başarı durumunun il, bölge ve okul türlerine göre analizi [Analysis of the ÖSS Results According to School Types, Cities, and Regions in Turkey]. Eğitim ve Bilim, 31(142), 45–55.
Coskun, V., Derince, S., & Ucarlar, N. (2010). Dil Yarası: Türkiye’de Eğitimde Anadilinin Kullanılmaması Sorunu ve Kürt Öğrencilerin Deneyimleri [A Wound on the Tongue: The Issue of the Use of the Mother Tongue in Education in Turkey and Experiences of Kurdish Students]. Diyarbakir: DİSA. https://tr.boell.org/sites/default/files/dil_yarasi.pdf
Dogan, O., & Haser, C. (2014). Neoliberal and Nationalist Discourses in Turkish Elementary Mathematics Education. ZDM Mathematics Education, 46(7), 1013–1023.
Eğitimsen. (2016). Education and Science Workers’ Union’s Report. Retrieved from http://egitimsen.org.tr/2015-2016-egitim-ogretim-istatistikleri/
Eğitimsen. (2017). Education and Science Workers’ Union’s Report. Retrieved from http://egitimsen.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/E%C4%9Fitimin-Durumu-Raporu-8-Haziran-2017.pdf
Emin, N. B. (2016). Türkiye’deki Suriyeli çocuklarin eğitimi temel eğitim politikalari [Educational Policies Regarding Syrian Children in Turkey]. Analiz, 153. Report by SETA. Retrieved from http://file.setav.org/Files/Pdf/20160309195808_turkiyedeki-suriyeli-cocuklarin-egitimi-pdf.pdf
Erberber, E. (2009). Analyzing Turkey’s Data from TIMSS 2007 to Investigate Regional Disparities in Eighth Grade Science Achievement (Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation). Boston College.
ERG. (2011). Eğitim Reformu Girişimi 2011–2012 Öğretim yılında uygulanan din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi dersi programına ilişkin bir değerlendirme [Education Reform Initiative Report of Evaluation of the Contents of the Course Religion and Moral in 2011–2012]. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BxvBkf6XGlf8ejRnTXRaVmVLbVU/edit
ERG. (2012). Eğitim Reformu Girişimi Eğitim İzleme Raporları [Education Reform Initiative Reports of Education in Turkey].
ERG. (2014). Eğitim Reformu Girişimi Türkiye eğitim sisteminde eşitlik ve akademik başarı araştırma raporu ve analiz [Education Reform Initiative Reports of Equality and Academic Performance in Turkish Educational System].
Gershberg, A. I. (2005). Towards an Education Decentralization Strategy for Turkey: Guideposts from International Experience. Policy Note for the Turkey Education Sector Study. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Global Turkey in Europe. http://www.iai.it/sites/default/files/gte_wp_11.pdf
Gök, F. (2007). The History and Development of Turkish Education. In M. Carlson, A. Rabo, & F. Gök (Eds.), Education in ‘Multicultural’ Societies: Turkish and Swedish Perspectives (pp. 247–255). Stockholm: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul.
Goksen, F., & Cemacilar, Z. (2010). Social Capital and Cultural Distance as Predictors of Early School Dropout: Implications for Community Action for Turkish Internal Migrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34, 163–175.
Gümüs, S. (2014). The Effects of Community Factors on School Participation in Turkey: A Multilevel Analysis. International Review of Education, 60, 79–98.
Gümüs, S., & Atalmıs, E. H. (2012). Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types and Regions in Turkey: Have They Changed Over Time? Mevlana International Journal of Education, 2(2), 50–66.
Gün, F., & Baskan, G. A. (2014). New Education System in Turkey (4 +4 +4): A Critical Outlook. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 131, 229–235.
Hood, C. (1995). The “New Public Management” in the 1980s: Variations on a Theme. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 20(2–3), 93–109.
İçduygu, A. (2004). Demographic Mobility and Turkey: Migration Experiences and Government Responses. Mediterranean Quarterly, 15(4), 88–99.
Içduygu, A., Romano, D., & Sirkeci, I. (1999). The Ethnic Question in an Environment of Insecurity: The Kurds in Turkey. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22, 991–1010.
Ince, C. (2015). Family Background, Different Forms of Capital, and Student Achievement in Turkish High Schools. Anthropologist, 22(2), 328–336.
Kaya, N. (2009). Forgotten or Assimilated? Minorities in the Education System of Turkey. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı.
Kaya, N. (2015a). The Opinions of Primary School, Turkish Language and Social Science Teachers regarding Education in the Mother Tongue (Kurdish). Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 2(2), 33–46.
Kaya, N. (2015b). Discrimination in Turkey’s Education System Based on Colour, Ethnic Origin, Language, Religion and Belief. Tarih Vakfı: Istanbul. Retrieved from http://tarihvakfi.org.tr/media/documents/10_11_2015_10_57_15d612.pdf
Kırdar, M. G. (2009). Explaining Ethnic Disparities in School Enrolment in Turkey. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 57(2), 297–333.
Koc, I., Hancioglu, A., & Cavlin, A. (2008). Demographic Differentials and Demographic Integration of Turkish and Kurdish Populations in Turkey. Population Research and Policy Review, 27(4), 447–457.
Köseleci, N. (2015). Progress Towards Good-Quality Education for All in Turkey: A Qualified Success? Comparative Education, 51(4), 555–574.
Kusadokoro, M., & Hasegawa, A. (2017). The Influence of Internal Migration on Migrant Children’s School Enrolment and Work in Turkey. The European Journal of Development Research, 29(2), 348–368.
MoNE (Ministry of National Education). (2013). Ortaöğretim izleme ve değerlendirme raporu. Ankara: MoNE. https://ogm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2014_02/14013735_ortaretimrapor2013.pdf
MoNE (Ministry of National Education). (2014). Milli Eğitim İstatistikleri, Örgün Eğitim: 2014–2015. Ankara: MoNE.
MoNE (Ministry of National Education). (2015). Milli Eğitim İstatistikleri, Örgün Eğitim: 2015–2016. Ankara: MoNE.
Oyvat, C., & Tekgüç, H. (2017). Double Squeeze on Educational Development: Land Inequality and Ethnic Conflict in Southeastern Turkey (No. 16812). University of Greenwich, Greenwich Political Economy Research Centre. http://gala.gre.ac.uk/16812/1/Oyvat_tekguc_Double_Squeeze_Development_gperc.pdf
Özdemir, C. (2016). Equity in the Turkish Education System: A Multilevel Analysis of Social Background Influences on the Mathematics Performance of 15-Year-Old Students. European Educational Research Journal, 15(2), 193–217.
Polat, S. (2013). Neo-liberal Education Policies in Turkey and Transformation in Education. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, 11(4). Retrieved from http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/PDFs/11-4-08.pdf
Polat, N., & Schallert, D. L. (2013). Kurdish Adolescents Acquiring Turkish: Their Self-Determined Motivation and Identification with L1 and L2 Communities as Predictors of L2 Accent Attainment. The Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 745–763. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12033.x.
Şahin, İ., & Gümez, Y. (2000). Efficiency of Education: The Case in Eastern and South-Eastern Turkey. Social Indicators Research, 49, 213–236.
Şahin, Y., Özdemir, C., & Selvi, O. (2012). Yükseköğretime geçişte okul türü ve coğrafi bölge değişkenlerinin etkisi [Effects of School Type and Region on Transition to Tertiary Education]. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24(24).
Sarier, Y. (2010). Ortaöğretime Giriş Sınavları (OKS-SBS) ve PISA Sonuçları Işığında Eğitimde Fırsat Eşitliğinin Değerlendirilmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(3), 107–129.
Seker, B. D., & Sirkeci, I. (2015). Challenges for Refugee Children at School in Eastern Turkey. Economics & Sociology, 8(4), 122.
Smits, J., & Hoşgör, A. (2003). Linguistic Capital: Language as a Socio-economic Resource Among Kurdish and Arabic Women in Turkey. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 26, 829–853.
Smits, J., & Hoşgör, A. G. (2006). Effects of Family Background Characteristics on Educational Participation in Turkey. International Journal of Educational Development, 26(5), 545–560.
Somer, M. (2002). Ethnic Kurds, Endogenous Identities, and Turkey’s Democratization and Integration with Europe. The Global Review of Ethnopolitics, 1(4), 74–93.
Stevens, P. A. J. (2007). Researching Race/Ethnicity and Educational Inequality in English Secondary Schools: A Critical Review of the Research Literature Between 1980 and 2005. Review of Educational Research, 77(2), 147–185.
Stevens, P. A. J. (2008). Exploring Pupils’ Perceptions of Teacher Racism in Their Context: A Case Study of Turkish and Belgian Vocational Education Pupils in a Belgian School. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29(2), 175–187.
Toprak, B. (2005). Islam and Democracy in Turkey. Turkish Studies, 6(2), 167–186.
UNHCR. (2016). Syria Regional Refugee Response. Inter-agency Information Sharing Portal. URL: http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/country.php?id=224. Last visited on 20 Dec 2016.
UNICEF. (2017). Children of Syria (A Brief Report). Retrieved from http://www.unicefturk.org/public/uploads/files/Children%20of%20Syria_01.2017_TR.pdf
Yeğen, M. (2015). The Kurdish Peace Process in Turkey: Genesis, Evolution and Prospects. In S. Aydın-Düzgit, D. Huber, & M. Müftüler-Baç (Eds.), Global Turkey in Europe III: Democracy, Trade, and the Kurdish Question in Turkey-EU Relations (Vol. 19). Rome: Edizioni Nuova Cultura.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Baysu, G., Agirdag, O. (2019). Turkey: Silencing Ethnic Inequalities Under a Carpet of Nationalism Shifting Between Secular and Religious Poles. In: Stevens, P.A.J., Dworkin, A.G. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Race and Ethnic Inequalities in Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94724-2_25
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94724-2_25
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-94723-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-94724-2
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)