Abstract
The electron configuration of molecular oxygen is unusual. It has two unpaired electrons, each in a π* orbital and having parallel spins, and thus it is a triplet molecule in the ground state. This is in contrast to most other molecules in the cell, which exist in the singlet ground state where all electrons have paired spins. Reactions between molecular oxygen and most molecules are therefore forbidden because of spin restriction. Molecular oxygen, however, can be converted to activated oxygen species by overcoming the spin restriction by a spin flip producing singlet oxygen (O2 1), or by the addition of either one, two or three electrons to form, respectively, the superoxide radical (O2 -), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or the hydroxyl radical (OH). Unlike molecular oxygen, these activated oxygen species (AOS) can be very reactive and are often referred to as reactive oxygen species (ROS). Cells must have effective mechanisms to remove excess AOS, particularly the most highly reactive hydroxyl radicals, to prevent oxidative damage to cellular components.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Allan AL, Fluhr R (1997) Two distinct sources of elicited reactive oxygen species in tobacco epidermis cells. Plant Cell 9:1559–1572
Allen R (1995) Dissection of oxidative stress tolerance using transgenic plants. Plant Physiol 107:1049–1054
Asada K (1999) The water-water cycle in chloroplasts: scavenging of active oxygen and dissipation of excess photons. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 50:601–639
Asada K (2000) The water-water cycle as alternative photon and electron sinks. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 355:1419–1431
Asada K, Takahashi M (1987) Production and scavenging of active oxygen in photosynthesis. In: Kyle DJ, Osmond CB, Arntzen CJ (eds) Photoinhibition. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 227–287
Baier M, Dietz K-J (1999) Alkyl hydroperoxide reductases: the way out of the oxidative breakdown of lipids in chloroplasts. Trends Plant Sci 4:166–168
Bolwell GP, Wojitaszek P (1997) Mechanisms for the generation of reactive oxygen species in plant defense: a broad perspective. Physiol Mol Plant Pathol 51:347–366
Boveris A, Cadenas E (1982) Production of superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide in mitochondria. In: Oberley LW (ed) Superoxide dismutase, vol II CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 15–30
Bowler C, Fluhr R (2000) The role of calcium and activated oxygens as signals for controlling cross-tolerance. Trends Plant Sci 5:241–246
Bowler C, Van Montagu M, Inze D (1992) Superoxide dismutases and stress tolerance. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 43:83–116
Chamnongpol S, Willekens H, Langebartels C, Van Montagu M, Inze D, Van Camp W (1996) Transgenic tobacco with reduced catalase activity develops necrotic lesions and induces pathogenesis-related expression under high light. Plant J 10:491–503
Clark D, Durner J, Navarre DA, Klessig DF (2000) Nitric oxide inhibition of tobacco catalase and ascorbate peroxidase. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 13:1380–1384
Dat J, Vandenabeele S, Vranova E, Van Montagu M, Inze D, Van Breusegem F (2000) Dual action of the active oxygen species during plant stress responses. Cell Mol Life Sci 57:779–795
Davidson JF, Schiestl RH (2001) Mitochondrial respiratory electron carriers are involved in oxidative stress during heat stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol 21:8483–8489
Dorey S, Baillieul F, Saindrenan P, Fritig B, Kauffmann S (1998) Tobacco class I and class II catalases are differentially expressed during elicitor-induced hypersensitive cell death and localized acquired resistance. Mol Plant Microb Inter 11:1102–1109
Eshdat Y, Holland D, Faltin Z, Ben-Hayyim G (1997) Plant glutathione peroxidases. Physiol Plant 100:234–240
Foyer C, Halliwell B (1976) The presence of glutathione and glutathione reductase in chloroplasts: a proposed role in ascorbic acid metabolism. Planta 133:21–25
Foyer CH, Noctor G (2000) Oxygen processing in photosynthesis: regulation and signaling. New Phytol 146:359–388
Grant JJ, Loake GJ (2000) Role of reactive oxygen intermediates and cognate redox signaling in disease resistance. Plant Physiol 124:21–29
Groom QJ, Torres MA, Fordham-Skelton AP, Hammond-Kosack KE, Robinson NJ, Jones JDG (1996) Rboha a rice homologue of the mammalian gp91phoxrespiratory burst oxidase gene. Plant J 10:515–522
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC (1989) Free radicals in biology and medicine. Clarendon, Oxford
Hammond-Kosack KE, Jones JDG (1996) Resistance gene-dependent plant defense responses. Plant Cell 8:1773–1791
Jaglo-Ottosen KR, Gilmour SJ, Zarka DG, Schabenberger O, Thomashow MF (1998) Ara-bidopsisCBF1 overexpression induces COR genes and enhances freezing tolerance. Science 280:104–106
Karpinski S, Escobar C, Karpinska B, Creissen G, Mullineaux PM (1997) Photosynthetic electron transport regulates the expression of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase genes in Arabidopsisduring excess light stress. Plant Cell 9:627–640
Karpinski S, Reynolds H, Karpinska B, Wingsle G, Creissen G, Mullineaux P (1999) Systemic signaling and acclimation in response to excess excitation energy in Arabidopsis. Science 284:654–657
Keller T, Damude HG, Werner D, Doerner P, Dixon RA, Lamb C (1998) A plant homologue of the neutrophil NADPH oxidase gp91phoxsubunit gene encodes a plasma membrane protein with Ca2+binding motifs. Plant Cell 10:255–266
Kendall AC, Keys AJ, Turner JC, Lea PJ, Miflin BJ (1983) The isolation and characterization of a catalase-deficient mutant of barley. Planta 159:505–511
Kessler A, Baldwin IT (2002) Plant responses to insect herbivory: the emerging molecular analysis. Annu Rev Plant Biol 53:299–328
Klessig DF, Durner J, Noad R, Navarre DA, Wendehenne D, Kumar D, Zhou JM, Shah J, Zhang S, Kachroo P, Trifa Y, Pontier D, Lam E, Silva H (2000) Nitric oxide and salicylic acid signaling in plant defense. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:8849–8855
Knight H, Knight MR (2001) Abiotic stress signaling pathways: specificity and cross-talk. Trends Plant Sci 6:262–267
Kovtun Y, Chiu WL, Tena G, Sheen J (2000) Functional analysis of oxidative stress-activated mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade in plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:2940–2945
Krause GH, Comic G (1987) CO2and O2interactions in photoinhibition. In: Kyle DJ, Osmond CB, Arntzen CJ (eds) Photoinhibition. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 169–196
Langebartels C, Schraudner M, Heller W, Ernest D, Sandermann H (2000) Oxidative stress and defense reactions in plants exposed to air pollutants and UV-B radiation. In: Inze D, van Montagu M (eds) Oxidative stress in plants. Harwood Acad Publisher, London, pp 105–135
Liu Q, Kasuga M, Sakuma Y, Abe H, Miura S, Yamaguchi-Shinozaki K, Shinozaki K (1998) Two transcription factors, DREB1 and DREB2, with an EREBP/AP2 DNA binding domain separate two cellular signal transduction pathways in drought- and low-temperature-responsive gene expression, respectively, in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 10:1391–1406
Maxwell DP, Wang Y, Mcintosh L (1999) The alternate oxidase lowers mitochondrial reactive oxygen production in plant cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:8271–8276
Merquiol E, Pnueli L, Cohen M, Simovitch M, Goloubinoff P, Kaplan A, Mittler R (2002) Seasonal and diurnal variations in gene expression in the desert legume Retama rae-tam. Plant Cell Environ 25:1627–1638
Mittler R (2002) Oxidative stress, antioxidants, and stress tolerance. Trends Plant Sci 7:405–410
Mittler R, Zilinskas BA (1994) Regulation of pea cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase and other antioxidant enzymes during the progression of drought stress and following recovery from drought. Plant J 5:397–405
Mittler R, Feng X, Cohen M (1998) Post-transcriptional suppression of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase expression during pathogen-induced programmed cell death in tobacco. Plant Cell 10:461–474
Mittler R, Hallak-Herr E, Orvar BL, Van Camp W, Willekens H, Inze D, Ellis B (1999) Transgenic tobacco plants with reduced capability to detoxify reactive oxygen intermediates are hyper-responsive to pathogen infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:14165–14170
Mittler R, Merquiol E, Hallak-Herr E, Rachmilevitch S, Kaplan A, Cohen M (2001) Living under a ‘dormant’ canopy: a molecular acclimation mechanism of the desert plant Rétama raetam. Plant J 25:407–416
Mullineaux P, Karpinski S (2002) Signal transduction in response, to excess light: getting out of the chloroplast. Curr Opin Plant Biol 5:43–48
Nakano Y, Asada K (1981) Hydrogen peroxide is scavenged by ascorbate-specific peroxidase in spinach chloroplasts. Plant Cell Physiol 22:867–880
Niyogi KK (1999) Photoprotection revisited: genetic and molecular approaches. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 50:333–359
Niyogi KK (2000) Safety valves for photosynthesis. Curr Opin Plant Biol 3:455–460
Noctor G, Foyer C (1998) Ascorbate and glutathione: keeping active oxygen under control. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 49:249–279
Orvar BL, Ellis BE (1997) Transgenic tobacco plants expressing antisense RNA for cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase show increased susceptibility to ozone injury. Plant J 11:1297–1305
Powles SB (1984) Photoinhibition of photosynthesis induced by visible light. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 35:15–44
Purvis AC, Shewfelt RL (1993) Does the alternate pathway ameliorate chilling injury in sensitive plant tissues? Physiol Plant 88:712–718
Rao MV, Davis K (1999) Ozone-induced cell death occurs via two distinct mechanisms in Arabidopsis: the role of salicylic acid. Plant J 17:603–614
Rizhsky L, Hallak-Herr E, Van Breusegem F, Rachmilevitch S, Rodermel S, Inzé D, Mittler R (2002a) Double antisense plants with suppressed expression of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase are less sensitive to oxidative stress than single antisense plants with suppressed expression of ascorbate peroxidase or catalase. Plant J 32:329–342
Rizhsky L, Hongjian L, Mittler R (2002b) The combined effect of drought stress and heat shock on gene expression in tobacco. Plant Physiol 130:1143–1151
Sandermann H, Wellburn AR, Heath RL (eds) (1997) Forest decline and ozone. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Sandermann H, Ernst D, Heller W, Langbartels C (1998) Ozone: an abiotic elicitor of plant defence reactions. Trends Plant Sci 3:47–50
Scandalios JG (1997) Molecular genetics of superoxide dismutases in plants. In: JG (ed) Oxidative stress and the molecular biology of antioxidant defenses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, pp 527–568
Seki M, Narusaka M, Abe H, Kasuga M, Yamaguchi-Shinozaki K, Carninci P, Hayashizaki Y, Shinozaki K (2001) Monitoring the expression pattern of 1300 Arabidopsisgenes under drought and cold stresses by using a full-length cDNA microarray. Plant Cell 13:61–72
Smirnoff N (2000) Ascorbate biosynthesis and function in photoprotection. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 355:1455–1464
Stevens RG, Creissen GP, Mullineaux PM (1997) Cloning and characterisation of a cytosolic glutathione reductase cDNA from pea (Pisum sativumL.) and its expression in response to stress. Plant Mol Biol 35:641–654
Sultan SE (2000) Phenotypic plasticity for plant development, function and life history. Trends Plant Sci 5:537–542
Surplus SL, Jordan BR, Murphy AM, Carr JP, Thomas B, Mackerness SA-H (1998) Ultra-violet-B-induced responses in Arabidopsis thaliana: role of salicylic acid and reactive oxygen species in the regulation of transcripts encoding photosynthetic and acid pathogenesis-related proteins. Plant Cell Environ 21:685–694
Tepperman JM, Zhu T, Chang HS, Wang X, Quail PH (2001) Multiple transcription-factor genes are early targets of phytochrome A signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:9437–9442
Willekens H, Inze D, Van Montagu M, Van Camp W (1995) Catalases in plants. Mol Breed 1:207–228
Willekens H, Chamnongpol S, Davey M, Schraudner M, Langebartels C, Van Montagu M, Inze D, Van Camp W (1997) Catalase is a sink for H2O2and is indispensable for stress defence in C-3 plants. EMBO J 16:4806–4816
Wingler A, Len PJ, Quick WP, Leegood RC (2000) Photorespiration: metabolic pathways and their role in stress protection. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 355:1517–1529
Xiong L, Ishitani M, Zhu JK (1999) Interaction of osmotic stress, temperature, and abscisic acid in the regulation of gene expression in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 119:205–212
Xiong L, Ishitani M, Lee H, Zhu JK (2001a) The Arabidopsis los5/aba3locus encodes a molybdenum cofactor sulfurase and modulates cold stress- and osmotic stress-responsive gene expression. Plant Cell 13:2063–2083
Xiong L, Lee BH, Ishitani M, Lee H, Zhang C, Zhu JK (2001b) FIERY1 encoding an inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase is a negative regulator of abscisic acid and stress signaling in Arabidopsis. Genes Dev 15:1971–1984
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mittler, R., Zilinskas, B.A. (2004). Activated Oxygen Species in Multiple Stress Situations and Protective Systems. In: Sandermann, H. (eds) Molecular Ecotoxicology of Plants. Ecological Studies, vol 170. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08818-0_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08818-0_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-05670-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-08818-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive