Abstract
This chapter analyses historic perspectives of membership and traces the development of the international private unions (IPUs) and international administrative unions (IAUs) established in the 19th century to today’s international organizations. The purpose of the chapter is not to provide facts but to show connections, e.g. between the establishment of the IPUs and the recent emergence of a new type of dual and hybrid organization which has become a new business model for establishing international organizations. Also, the fact that previously international organizations have admitted both technical administrations and dependent territories to membership on a par with states is of relevance for the discussion on eligible subjects of membership. The chapter also highlights the differences between membership concepts and collective security concepts (with regard to relations with non-members) of the League of Nations and the UN, as well as the emergence of treaty bodies and quasi-autonomous bodies established under the auspices of the United Nations, and the proliferation, privatization of international organizations and new institutional paradigms.
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Notes
- 1.
Kelly 2005, p. 364.
- 2.
Mangone 1954, p. 100.
- 3.
Mangone 1954, p. 21.
- 4.
Mangone 1954, p. 22.
- 5.
Sands and Klein 2009, p. 3.
- 6.
Mangone 1954, p. 23.
- 7.
Fenwick 1951, p. 19.
- 8.
Claude 1971, p. 25.
- 9.
Fenwick 1951, p. 20.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
Claude 1971, p. 21.
- 12.
Mangone 1954, p. 4.
- 13.
Mangone 1954, p. 6.
- 14.
Baldwin 1907, p. 576.
- 15.
Sands and Klein 2009, pp. 4–5.
- 16.
Archer 1992, p. 14.
- 17.
See “1775. First American abolition society founded in Philadelphia.” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-american-abolition-society-founded-in-philadelphia, and Society of the Friends of Blacks, “Address to the National Assembly in Favor of the Abolition of the Slave Trade”. 5 Feb. 1790. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/290/.
- 18.
Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, signed in Vienna on 22 January 1815. http://www.pdavis.nl/Treaty_Portugal.htm.
- 19.
Skidmore II, W. E. “The World Antislavery Convention of 1840.” Historians Against Slavery. (blog) http://www.historiansagainstslavery.org/main/the-world-antislavery-convention-of-1840/.
- 20.
Sands and Klein 2009, p. 4.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
Agreement between the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Swiss Federal Council to Determine the Legal Status of the Committee in Switzerland, 1993, Article 1, https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/agreement-between-icrc-and-switzerland.
- 24.
While the ICRC acquired its current name in 1875, its statutes were only drafted in 1915, and it was only registered that year as a private, non-profit organization under the Swiss Civil Code.
- 25.
See Article 1 of the Statutes of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU Statutes), adopted in 1976 and amended on various occasions, the most recent being in Oct. 2011. http://www.ipu.org/strct-e/statutes-new.htm#1.
- 26.
Martha 2010, p. 150 (hereinafter referred to as INTERPOL).
- 27.
Reinsch 1911, p. 4.
- 28.
Mangone 1954, p. 67.
- 29.
Codding 1964, p. 5.
- 30.
See The Metre Convention, 1875, modified in 1921. https://www.bipm.org/en/worldwide-metrology/metre-convention/.
- 31.
- 32.
Treaty concerning the Formation of a General Postal Union. 9 October 1874. The United Nations System and Its Predecessors. Vol. II, 84–92.
- 33.
See Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. 20 March 1883. The United Nations System and Its Predecessors. Vol. II. 105–117.
- 34.
See Convention concerning the Creation of an International Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. 9 September 1886. The United Nations System and Its Predecessors. Vol. II. 118–134.
- 35.
Mangone 1954, pp. 79–80.
- 36.
For details, refer to Strong 1921, pp. 321–322.
- 37.
See WHO. Archives of the Office International d’Hygiène Publique (OIHP) http://www.who.int/archives/fonds_collections/bytitle/fonds_1/en/ and Fee and Brown 2002, pp. 1888–1889. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12453801.
- 38.
Wolfrum 2006, para. 2
- 39.
Claude 1971, p. 35.
- 40.
Claude 1971, p. 37.
- 41.
Reinsch 1911, p. 146.
- 42.
Reinsch 1911, p. 147.
- 43.
See The International Institute of Agriculture. Science. 1921. New Series, Vol. 54, No. 1387, 86–87, 86. As indicated therein, the information to be collected and disseminated concerned matters such as “agricultural production, consumption, movements, surpluses, deficits, and prices of agricultural products, transportation, plant and animal diseases and insect pests, rural credits and insurance, standard of living, wages and hours of labor on farms, cooperative organizations of farmers, legislation affecting agriculture, and similar information.” Ibid., 86.
- 44.
See “Convention between the United States of America and Italy, Montenegro, Russia, Argentine Republic, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Salvador, Portugal, The United Mexican States, Luxemburg, The Swiss Confederation, Persia, Japans, Ecuador, Bulgaria, Denmark, Spain, France, Sweden, The Netherlands, Greece, Uruguay, Germany, Cuba, Austria-Hungary, Norway, Egypt, Great Britain, Guatemala, Ethiopia, Nicaragua, Brazil, Costa Rica, Chile, Peru, China, Paraguay, and Turkey, Providing for the Creation of an International Institute of Agriculture”. Signed at Rome, 7 June 1905. The American Journal of International Law. 1908. Vol. 2, Supplement: Official Documents, 358–362.
- 45.
Reinsch 1911, p. 144.
- 46.
Reinsch 1911, p. 167.
- 47.
Article 15 of the Treaty concerning the General Postal Union provided:
There shall be organized, under the name of the International Office of the General Postal Union, a central office, which shall be conducted under the surveillance of a Postal Administration to be chosen by the Congress, and the expenses of which shall be borne by all the Administrations of the contracting States.
This office shall be charged with the duty of collecting, publishing, and distributing information of every kind which concerns the international postal service; of giving, at the request of the parties concerned, an opinion upon questions in dispute; of making known proposals for modifying the detailed regulations; of giving notice of alterations adopted; of facilitating operations relating to international accounts, especially in the cases referred to in Article 10 foregoing; and, in general of considering and working out all questions in the interest of the Postal Union.” In accordance with Article 14 of the said Convention, the “treaty does not involve any alteration in the interior postal legislation of any country, nor any restriction of the right of the contracting parties to maintain and to conclude treaties, as well as to maintain and establish more restricted unions with a view to a progressive improvement of postal relations.
- 48.
Völderndorff 1894.
- 49.
Zeilinger 2013, para. 5.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
Reinsch 1911, p. 155.
- 52.
Article 15 of the Treaty relative to the Formation of a General Postal Union. 9 October 1974. In The United Nations System and its Predecessors. 1997. Vol. 2, Doc. 9, 84–92. See also Article 14 of the International Telegraph Convention of St Petersburg. 10/22 July 1875. The United Nations System and its Predecessors. 1997. Vol. 2, Doc. 8, 78–83, 81–82, 90.
- 53.
Convention for the Creation of an International Institute of Agriculture. 1905, Article 2. (“IIA Convention”). In The United Nations System and its Predecessors. 1997. Vol. 2, Doc. 13, 135–139.
- 54.
Ibid., Article 5.
- 55.
Ibid., Article 6.
- 56.
See Articles 7–11 of Appendix No. 1 Regulations to the Convention on the Establishment of an International Bureau of Weights and Measures of 20 May 1875, In The United Nations System and Its Predecessors. 1997. Vol. 2, Doc. 10, 93–104, 98–99.
- 57.
Archer, 13.
- 58.
Eagleton 1950a, p. 329.
- 59.
Ibid., 329.
- 60.
See Chiu 1966. Chiu further cites Fiore’s International Law Codified, as follows: “The International Congo Association, to which international legal personality was attributed for the limited purpose for which it was formally recognized, was regarded as capable of concluding treaties, and has concluded several, including one with Italy, 19 Dec. 1884.” Ibid.
- 61.
Hostie 1930, p. 209.
- 62.
Michaels 1971, p. 69.
- 63.
Ibid., 1.
- 64.
Amerasinghe 2005, p. 77.
- 65.
“Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube between Galatz and Braila ”, Permanent Court of International Justice, Collection of Advisory Opinions, Series B, No. 14, 8 December 1927. http://www.icj-cij.org/files/permanent-court-of-international-justice/serie_B/B_14/01_Commission_europeenne_du_Danube_Avis_consultatif.pdf.
The PCIJ stated in this Decision on p. 64: “As the European Commission is not a State, but an international institution with a special purpose, it only has the functions bestowed upon it by the Definitive Statute with a view to the fulfilment of that purpose, but it has power to exercise these functions to their full extent, in so far as the Statute does not impose restrictions upon it.”
- 66.
Amerasinghe 2005, p. 77.
- 67.
Jellinek 1882, pp. 169–170.
- 68.
Michaels 1971, p. 35.
- 69.
Reinsch 1911, p. 149.
- 70.
Article 6 of the Agreement Respecting the Establishment of an International Office of Public Health of 9 December 1907. The United Nations System and Its Predecessors. Vol. II, 140–146, 141.
- 71.
The German version of the additional article is reproduced in Rosenthal 1894, p. 349:
Die Staaten, welche an dem Übereinkommen vom 14. X. 1890 über den Eisenbahnfrachtverkehr nicht teilgenommen haben, können um die Aufnahme nachsuchen. Sie haben sich zu diesem Zwecke an die schweizer. Regierung zu wenden. Diese Regierung wird das Aufnahmegesuch dem Centralamt zur Prüfung übermitteln und alsdann seine Vorschläge den Vertragsstaaten zur Kenntnis bringen.
Wenn ein Einverständnis erzielt ist, wird die schweizer. Regierung dem betreffenen Staate von der Aufnahme in das Übereinkommen Kenntnis geben und diese Aufnahme gleich- zeitig den übrigen VertragsStaaten mitteilen.
- 72.
Reinsch 1911, p. 149.
- 73.
See, with further references, Reinsch 1911, p. 149, who states,
An exceptional method is followed in those unions in which very special burdens are imposed upon the treaty states. Thus, in the European railway freight union the request of a country to be admitted to membership must be addressed to the directing state; it is then referred to and reported on by the bureau, submitted to the member states, and acted upon by them. Unanimous action of the latter is necessary in order that a new member may be admitted. In the sugar union the request for admission must be acted on by the commission of the union, to whom it is transmitted through the Belgian government, which is, in this case, the directing state. Admission to the union for the suppression of the slave trade may be made subject to certain conditions, which are applied upon motion of the treaty states [….]. In certain unions membership is limited by natural causes or by the specific nature of the purpose for which the union has been created [….].
- 74.
Revised Convention respecting the Navigation of the Rhine, 17 Oct. 1968, The United Nations System and its Predecessors, Vol. II, 153–167, 153.
- 75.
The Treaty of Versailles envisaged that the Central Commission would have 19 members: 2 of the Netherlands, 2 of Switzerland, 4 of riparian German states, 2 of Great Britain and 2 of Belgium. See Article 355 of the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany and other Treaty Engagements, signed at Versailles, 28 June 1919. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044020077533;view=1up;seq=5.
- 76.
- 77.
Zeilinger, para 4.
- 78.
The Peace Treaty of Paris, 1856 foresaw the establishment of a permanent riparian Commission and a European Commission, deemed to be temporary, established to dredge the mouths of the Danube. While the riparian commission never managed to function effectively, the European Commission was extended on various occasions. For the relevant provisions of the Paris Peace Treaty (Articles 15–19), see The United Nations System and its Predecessors. 1997. Vol. 2, Doc. 17; European Commission of the Danube (Peace Treaty of Paris, 1856, Articles 15–19. A good summary of the relevant background is contained in the Summary of the “Advisory Opinion of 8 Dec. 1927 (Series B, No. 14) on the Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube between Galatz and Braila prepared by the United Nations: http://legal.un.org/PCIJsummaries/documents/english/PCIJ_FinalText.pdf. For the Peace Treaty of Paris, see Sherman 1923, pp. 438–459.
- 79.
See the Paris Peace Treaty, Article 16.
- 80.
See McCaffrey 2010.
- 81.
Convention for the Establishment of an International Bureau of Weights and Measures. 1875. The United Nations System and its Predecessors. Vol. II, 93–104, 96, Article 11.
“Those governments which may take advantage of the privilege, open to every state, of acceding to this convention, shall be required to pay a contribution, the amount of which shall be fixed by the committee on the basis established in Article 9, and shall which be devoted to the improvement of the scientific apparatus of the bureau. (emphasis added)”
- 82.
For example, Article 16 of the Convention on the Protection of Industrial Property of 20 March 1883 stated: “The States that have not taken part in the present convention shall be admitted to adhere to the same upon their application. This adhesion shall be notified through the diplomatic channel [….]” See Knipping 1999, p. 109.
- 83.
Article 6 of the Agreement respecting the Establishment of an International Office of Public Health of Dec. 1907 read: “Governments that have not signed the present arrangements are, on their request, admitted to adhere thereto. Their adhesion shall be notified, through the diplomatic channel, to the Royal Government of Italy, and by the latter to the other contracting Government.” See The United Nations System and its Predecessors. Vol. II, 140–146, 141.
- 84.
Codding 1952, p. 38.
- 85.
Ibid.
- 86.
International Telegraph Convention of St. Petersburg. 10/22 July 1875. Article 18. United Nations System and its Predecessors, Vol. II, 78–92, 82–83.
- 87.
Codding 1952, p. 41.
- 88.
Codding 1952, p. 100.
- 89.
Knipping et al. 1997a, pp. 84–92.
- 90.
Akzin 1933, p. 652.
- 91.
Ibid.
- 92.
Akzin 1933, p. 652.
- 93.
The Treaty of Bern, Article 17 provides:
The entry into the Union of countries beyond sea not yet forming part of it, shall be effected on the following conditions:
1st. They shall make their application to the Administration charged with the management of the International Office of the Union.
2d. They shall submit to the stipulations of the treaty of the Union, subject to an ulterior understanding on the subject of the cost of sea conveyance.
3d. Their adhesion to the Union must be preceded by an understanding between the Administrations having postal conventions or direct relations with them.
4th. In order to bring about this understanding, the managing Administration shall convene, if there be occasion, a meeting of the Administrations interested, and of the Administration desiring admission.
5th. When the understanding has been arrived at, the managing Administration shall give notice of the same to all the members of the General Postal Union.
6th. If in a period of six weeks, counting from the date of that communication, no objections are presented, the adhesion shall be considered as accomplished, and notice thereof shall be given by the managing Administration to the Administration joining the Union. The definitive adhesion shall be completed by a diplomatic act between the Government of the managing Administration and the Government of the Administration admitted into the Union.
- 94.
Codding 1964, pp. 35–36.
- 95.
Ibid., 36.
- 96.
Cotreau 1975, p. 100.
- 97.
Cotreau 1975, p. 101.
- 98.
Cotreau 1975, p. 101.
- 99.
Akzin 1933, p. 653.
- 100.
Universal Postal Union. Convention and final protocol signed at Paris, 1 June 1878, Article 18:
Countries which have not taken part in the present convention are admitted to adhere thereto upon their demand. Notice is given of this adhesion, through the diplomatic channel, to the Government of the Swiss Confederation, and by that Government to all the countries of the Union. It implies, as a right, accession to all the clauses and admission to all the advantages stipulated by the present Convention.
See Bevans 1968, pp. 51–62. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000001-0051.pdf.
- 101.
Universal Postal Union, Article 21: “The following are considered as forming, for the application of Articles 16, 19, and 20 preceding, a single country, or a single Administration, as the case may be: 1st. The Empire of British India; 2d. The Dominion of Canada; 3d. The whole of the Danish Colonies; 4th. The whole of the Spanish Colonies; 5th. The whole of the French Colonies; 6th. The whole of the Netherland Colonies; 7th. The whole of the Portuguese Colonies.”
- 102.
As indicated by Grubbs, “the following Governments were represented at the Rome meeting of 1907: Belgium, Brazil, British India, Egypt, France, Great Britain, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Switzerland and the United States.” Grubbs 1909, p. 23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4562416.pdf?refreqid=excelsior:9c867f3f6a630e65b907efb9b2cdb26f.
- 103.
The Agreement in reproduced in The United Nations System and its Predecessors, Vol. II, 140–146.
- 104.
Article 6 of the Agreement respecting the Establishment of an International Office of Public Health.
- 105.
The text of the Brussels International Sugar Convention (1902) is reproduced in The Advocate of Peace (1894–1920), Vol. 64, 78–79, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25751939.
- 106.
Wilk 1939, p. 862.
- 107.
International Sugar Convention, Article 7.
- 108.
See also Taylor 1909, pp. 347–358.
- 109.
International Sugar Convention, Article 9.
- 110.
Claude 1971, p. 44.
- 111.
Oppenheim 1919, p. 29.
- 112.
Cited by Miller 2009, p. 11.
- 113.
See Eagleton 1950b, p. 334.
- 114.
Crawford 2013, p. 152.
- 115.
Regarding the transfer of its assets and functions, Chiu refers to Articles 8, paras 2 and 4 of the Covenant which were interpreted to authorize the League to conclude treaties in matter of disarmament” and to Article 17 of the Covenant which was construed to be the basis of an agreement between the League and a non-member. (See Chiu, 8) While recognizing that “no agreement was ever concluded under the above mentioned provisions” (Ibid., 8), Chiu shows that “the LN [League of Nations] did conclude a number of agreements with both member and non-member States.” (Ibid., 8).
- 116.
This related, as indicated by Chiu, to an “exchange of notes on registration of treaties and other international agreements of the United States with the Secretariat of the LN, 22–23 Jan. 1934.” Chiu , 12 with further references.
- 117.
Oppenheim 1919, p. 36.
- 118.
Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 59 ss.
- 119.
See Berdahl 1932, p. 99, with further references.
- 120.
Smith, H. A. in the Preface to Schwarzenberger 1936, pp. xi–xiii, xi.
- 121.
Claude 1971, p. 86.
- 122.
For the membership of Argentina, which was invited by the Annex of the Covenant to accede the Covenant, see Hudson 1934, pp. 125–133.
- 123.
“Before 1914 Canada could only have obtained recognition of its separate international personality by successful revolt against the mother country, and no proof of its de facto autonomy would have entitled it to a place in the councils of the nations, although it may be noted that Canada had already secured for itself a qualified position in international affairs by reason of the separate commercial treaties [it had entered into with] other states.” Fenwick 1920, pp. 484–485.
- 124.
Northedge 1986, p. 47.
- 125.
According to Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 35.
- 126.
Ibid., 36.
- 127.
Fenwick 1920, p. 484.
- 128.
Ibid., 485.
- 129.
Hudson 1924, p. 441.
- 130.
Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 26.
- 131.
Regarding the exclusion of Lichtenstein, see Gunter 1974, pp. 496–501.
- 132.
See Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 67.
- 133.
Ibid.
- 134.
Rappard 1934, p. 544.
- 135.
“Spain, Poland, India, Australia, Canada, [were] counted as ‘small members’ of the League, as [were] Sweden, Holland, Luxembourg, Albania, Belgium, Hungary, Denmark, Switzerland, Liberia and Panama.” See Rappard 1934, p. 544.
- 136.
Ibid.
- 137.
Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 96.
- 138.
Articles 3 and 4 of the League Covenant provides that the Assembly and Council of the League, respectively, “may deal with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.” Article 11 of the Covenant provides in pertinent part: “Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the Members of the League or not, is hereby declared a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations….” Other relevant provisions are Articles 16, 17 and 20 of the Covenant.
- 139.
Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 118.
- 140.
Ibid., 150.
- 141.
For additional details, see Chapter VII of Schwarzenberger 1936, p. 119 ss.
- 142.
Claude 1971, p. 263.
- 143.
Eckhardt 1919, p. 437.
- 144.
Pollaczek 1946, p. 606.
- 145.
Ibid., 607.
- 146.
Ghebali, V. Y. Aux origines de l’Ecosoc—l’évolution des commissions et organisations techniques de la Société des Nations. http://www.persee.fr/doc/afdi_0066-3085_1972_num_18_1_1712.
- 147.
Bailey 1931, p. 418.
- 148.
Ibid.
- 149.
Klein 2006.
- 150.
Claude 1971, p. 69.
- 151.
- 152.
Claude 1971, p. 61.
- 153.
Conforti 1996, p. 3.
- 154.
Claude 1971, p. 66.
- 155.
Claude 1971, p. 66.
- 156.
Szasz 1999, pp. 2–3.
- 157.
Claude 1971, p. 61.
- 158.
Reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion: ICJ Reports 1949, 174.
- 159.
Claude 1971, p. 246.
- 160.
Gowlland-Debbas 2011, pp. 185–444, 200–201.
- 161.
See Simma 1994, p. 162.
- 162.
Leonard 1951, p. 48.
- 163.
Ibid., 74.
- 164.
See Conforti 1996, p. 4.
- 165.
See Simma 1994, p. 156.
- 166.
Grant 2009, p. 1.
- 167.
See in particular, Grant, with detailed references.
- 168.
Szasz 1999, p. 3.
- 169.
Claude 1971, p. 68.
- 170.
Claude 1971, p. 69.
- 171.
See Repertory of the Practice of the United Nations Organs, 1945–1953, Vol. 3, Article 57, para 4. http://legal.un.org/docs/?path=../repertory/art63/english/rep_orig_vol3_art63.pdf&lang=EFS.
- 172.
Repertory of the Practice of the United Nations Organs, Article 63. http://legal.un.org/repertory/art63.shtml.
- 173.
Article 63, Repertory of Practice of the United Nations Organs (1945–1954), para 79. http://legal.un.org/docs/?path=../repertory/art63/english/rep_orig_vol3_art63.pdf&lang=EFS.
- 174.
Ibid., para 82.
- 175.
Ibid., para 91.
- 176.
See Repertory of Practice of the United Nations Organs, Article 63, Supplement 7, 1985–1988, Vol. 4, para 20.
- 177.
See Agreement between the United Nations and the World Tourism Organization, Article 16, para 1. In UNWTO Basic Documents. 2016. Vol. I, 5th ed. Madrid: UNWTO. http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/130718basicdocumentsenweb.pdf.
- 178.
The International Civil Service Commission. 2000. A Quarter-Century Serving the United Nations Common System. https://icsc.un.org/resources/pdfs/general/25abenglish.pdf.
- 179.
Article 3(b) of the Convention on the World Meteorological Organization provides the following may become members of WMO: “Any Member of the United Nations having a Meteorological Service by acceding to the present Convention in accordance with Article 33.”
- 180.
See, for example, para 1 of Article 5 of the Convention establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), as amended on 28 September 1979, which provides that membership “shall be open to any State which is a member of any of the Unions as defined in Article 2(vii)”. http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=283833.
- 181.
Klein , paras 24 and 25.
- 182.
See the FAO Constitution, Articles II, para 11; III, para 1. Basic Texts of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015 ed. Vols. I and II.
- 183.
See the FAO Constitution, VI, para 7.
- 184.
UNWTO Statutes, Article 7(1). http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtostatuteseng.pdf.
- 185.
ITU Constitution, Article 2.
- 186.
ITU Constitution, Article 3.
- 187.
Szasz 1999, p. 38.
- 188.
See Resolution 70/296 “Agreement concerning the Relationship between the United Nations and the International Organization for Migration ”. http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/296.
- 189.
The above follows the list given by Rudolf 2006.
- 190.
Szasz 1999, p. 6, footnote 13.
- 191.
General Assembly Resolution 1995 (XIX), Section I. https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/210/89/IMG/NR021089.pdf?OpenElement.
- 192.
General Assembly Resolution 1995 (XIX), Section II, para 1.
- 193.
General Assembly Resolution 1995 (XIX), para 4.
- 194.
General Assembly Resolution 1995 (XIX), para 5.
- 195.
UNDP. Executive Board. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/executive-board.html.
- 196.
UNEP. 2010. United Nations Specialised Agencies versus United Nations Programmes. Note by the Executive Director, 10. https://www.scribd.com/document/212017488/UN-Specialised-Agencies-vs-UN-Programmes.
- 197.
The “Report of the High-Level on United Nations System-wide Coherence in the areas of development, humanitarian assistance and the environment” recommends “that the United Nations Environment Programme be upgraded and given real authority as the environmental policy pillar of the United Nations system.” The aforementioned Report is an attachment to United Nations. 2006. Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit. Note by the Secretary-General. Doc. A/61/583, 15. http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/61/583.
- 198.
See Meyer-Ohlendorf and Knigge 2007, pp. 124–141. http://www.centerforunreform.org/sites/default/files/GEG_Meyer-Ohlendorf_Knigge.pdf.
- 199.
S Bernstein with J Brunnée. “Options for Broader Reform of the Institutional Framework for Sustainable Development (IFSD): Structural, Legal, and Financial Aspects”, 9. http://www1.uneca.org/Portals/rio20/documents/cfssd7/IFSD%20FIVE%20OPTIONS%20REPORT_31Oct11.pdf.
- 200.
Ibid.
- 201.
Ibid.
- 202.
Ulfstein 2009, p. 49.
- 203.
Ibid., 49.
- 204.
Szasz 1999, p. 29.
- 205.
Ibid., 29.
- 206.
Ibid., 29.
- 207.
Ibid., 29.
- 208.
Ibid., 18.
- 209.
Rudolf 2006, para 11.
- 210.
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations. Adopted by the General Assembly on 13 February 1946. http://www.un.org/en/ethics/pdf/convention.pdf.
- 211.
Ulfstein 2007, p. 878.
- 212.
Churchill and Ulfstein 2000, pp. 623–659.
- 213.
- 214.
Agreement Establishing the Eurasian Development Bank (EADB Charter), Article 1. https://eabr.org/upload/iblock/c91/foundation-documents.pdf.
- 215.
Agreement Establishing the Eurasian Development Bank, Article 3, para 1.
- 216.
Agreement Establishing the Eurasian Development Bank, Article 3.
- 217.
See Silk Road Fund , http://www.silkroadfund.com.cn/enwap/27365/index.html.
- 218.
Wihtol 2015, pp. 7–15.
- 219.
Chin 2016, p. 12.
- 220.
Krishnamurti, R. , 49.
- 221.
Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
- 222.
Agreement on the New Development Bank. http://www.ndb.int/wp-content/themes/ndb/pdf/Agr.
- 223.
- 224.
See Credit Guarantee and Investment Facility (CGIF) Articles of Agreement (as revised at the meeting of contributors of 27 November 2013 in Shanghai). http://www.cgif-abmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/CGIF-Articles-of-Agreement-as-of-May-2016_Clean.pdf (henceforth CGIF Articles of Agreement). Articles 4 and 5 contain provisions on the authorized capital of the CGIF, and the rights and obligations of contributors.
- 225.
See CGIF Articles of Agreement, Articles 7, 8 and 9.
- 226.
CGIF Articles of Agreement, Articles 7.7 and 8.6.
- 227.
On the CGIF, see http://www.cgif-abmi.org/.
- 228.
See CGIF Articles of Agreement, para 2.3. “CGIF shall not borrow from any source to finance its operations described in Article 2.2 except for the purposes of cash management.”
- 229.
In accordance with ADB Charter, Article 50.1, ADB “shall enjoy immunity of every form of legal process except in cases arising out of or in connection with the exercise of its powers … to guarantee obligations.”
- 230.
Agreement Establishing ASEAN+3 Macroeconomic Research Office (AMRO), Article 1(1).
- 231.
Droesse 2011, pp. 6–33. [see footnote 213].
- 232.
Droesse 2011, p. 16, citing Blokker, Blokker, Proliferation of International Organizations and Exploratory Introduction.
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Droesse, G. (2020). Historic Evolution of Membership Concepts. In: Membership in International Organizations. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-327-6_2
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