Abstract
Among historians and political scientists who study the roots of dictatorial rule there is an increasing clamour to examine factors beyond domestic conditions.1 Lamenting the isolated case-study focus of much research on fascism, for example, Constantin Iordachi has recently called for a transnational research agenda in which the ‘multiple entanglements and reciprocal influences’ of movements and regimes on one another is a central concern.2 Thomas Ambrosio has proposed a research programme to study authoritarian diffusion — how the emergence of dictatorship in one country affects the probability that it will emerge in another country.3
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Notes
C. Iordachi, ‘Fascism in inter-war east central and southeastern Europe: Toward a new transnational research agenda’, East Central Europe 37, 2010, p. 195.
T. Ambrosio, ‘Constructing a framework of authoritarian diffusion: Concepts, dynamics, and future research’, International Studies Perspectives II, 2010, pp. 375–392.
See P. Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, London, Routledge, 2003.
The most comprehensive review of the so-called ‘colour’ revolutions in the former Soviet Union remains V. J. Bunce and S. L. Wolchik, Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Cited in Z. Elkins and B. Simmons, ‘On waves, clusters, and diffusion: A conceptual framework’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 33, no. 598, 2005, pp. 38–51.
See, for example, N. Bermeo, Ordinary People in Extraordinary Times: The Citizenry and the Breakdown of Democracy, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2003;
G. Capoccia, Defending Democracy: Reactions to Extremism in Interwar Europe, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
Though for an important exception see K. Weyland, ‘The diffusion of regime contention in European democratization, 1830–1940’, Comparative Political Studies 43, nos. 8/9, 2010, pp. 1148–1176; Bunce and Wolchik, Defeating Authoritarian Leaders, passim.
See A. C. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 301.
I. Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century, Budapest, Corvina, 1999, pp. 181–191 provides a concise overview of the main features of the regime.
See M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 45.
C.A. Macartney, October Fifteenth: A History of Modern Hungary, 1929–1945, Vol. I, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1956, p. 49.
Cited in T. Sakmyster, Hungary’s Admiral on Horseback: Miklós Horthy, 1918–1944, Boulder, CO, East European Monographs, 1994, p. 124.
See M. M. Kovács, ‘The problem of continuity between the 1920 numerus clausus and post-1938 anti-Jewish legislation in Hungary’, East European Jewish Affairs 35, no. 1, 2005, pp. 23–32.
See Kovács, ‘The problem of continuity’ and P. T. Nagy, ‘The numerus clausus in interwar Hungary: Pioneering European anti-Semitism’, East European Jewish Affairs 35, no. 1, 2005, pp. 13–22. Nagy also notes (pp. 16–17) that using religious affiliation as a criterion was not feasible because that would have prejudiced the Protestants, who were overrepresented in government, the intelligentsia, and the middle classes.
N. Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews: Policy and Legislation 1920–1943, Ramat-Gan, Bar-Ilan University Press, 1981, p. 90.
See Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews, pp. 139–141; M. M. Kovács, Liberal Professions and Illiberal Politics: Hungary from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 104–105; Macartney, October Fifteenth, pp. 324–325. The full text of the law can be found in Igazságügyi Törvények Tára XXII (1939), 2. szám, pp. 81–92.
Ibid., p. 135; B. Ablonczy, Pál Teleki (1874–1941): The Life of a Controversial Hungarian Politician, Boulder, CO, Social Science Monographs, 2006, p. 183.
M. Ormos, Hungary in the Age of the Two World Wars 1914–1945, Boulder, CO, Social Science Monographs, 2007, p. 266; Kovács, Liberal Professions, p. 102.
Cited in Ignác Romsics, István Bethlen: A Great Conservative Statesman of Hungary, 1874–1946. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995, p. 326.
See Horthy’s October 14, 1940 note to Prime Minister Teleki, which can be found in János Pelle, Sowing the Seeds of Hatred: Anti-Jewish Laws and Hungarian Public Opinion, 1938–1944. Boulder, CO, East European Monographs, 2004, p. 95.
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Wittenberg, J. (2014). External Influences on the Evolution of Hungarian Authoritarianism, 1920–44. In: Pinto, A.C., Kallis, A. (eds) Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137384416_10
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