Abstract
Self-discipline pervasively impacts most aspects of human life. It also promotes numerous human behaviors with positive psychological outcomes. Two studies were conducted within the scope of this research. The aim of the first study was to develop and test the psychometric properties of the self-discipline scale (SDS) for adults. Validity and reliability analyses were conducted on two different samples attending different universities in Turkey. As a result of the analyses, a valid and reliable scale was developed consisting of the two-dimensional construct and 13 items. The aim of the second study was to test the sequential mediating roles of grit and life-satisfaction in the relationship between self-discipline and peace among college students. The results revealed that self-discipline is positively related to grit, life-satisfaction, and peace. Path analysis showed that the sequential mediating effect is significant for grit and life satisfaction on the relationship between self-discipline and peace. Overall, these results demonstrated that self-discipline makes a significant contribution to a peaceful life, also grit and life-satisfaction have a remarkable role in this contribution.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007). The IPIP-HEXACO scales: An alternative, public-domain measure of the personality constructs in the HEXACO model. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1515–1526.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Pieters, R. (1998). Goal-directed emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 12(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379754.
Baumeister, R. F., & Alquist, J. L. (2009). Is there a downside to good self-control? Self and Identity, 8, 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860802501474.
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1252–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252.
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 351–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x.
Bear, G. G., & Duquette, J. F. (2008). Fostering self-discipline. Principal Leadership, 9(2), 10–14.
Bernecker, K., & Becker, D. (2020). Beyond self-control: Mechanisms of hedonic goal pursuit and its relevance for well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 014616722094199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220941998.
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149.
Briki, W. (2017). Passion, trait self-control, and wellbeing: Comparing two mediation models predicting wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 841. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00841.
Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2012). Manual of data analysis for social sciences (17th ed.). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Publishing.
Buzzetto-Hollywood, N., & Mitchell, B. C. (2019). Grit and persistence: Findings from a longitudinal study of student performance. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 16, 377–391. https://doi.org/10.28945/4375.
Cheung, T. T., Gillebaart, M., Kroese, F., & de Ridder, D. (2014). Why are people with high self-control happier? The effect of trait self-control on happiness as mediated by regulatory focus. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 722. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00722.
Credé, M., Tynan, M. C., & Harms, P. D. (2017). Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(3), 492–511. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000102.
de Ridder, D., & Gillebaart, M. (2017). Lessons learned from trait self-control in well-being: Making the case for routines and initiation as important components of trait self-control. Health Psychology Review, 11(1), 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2016.1266275.
de Ridder, D. T. D., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 76–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 1–11.
Demirci, İ., & Ekşi, H. (2017). Huzur ölçeği’nin geliştirilmesi ve psikometrik özelliklerinin incelenmesi [Development of peace scale and examination of its psychometric properties]. Journal of Values Education, 15(33), 39–60.
Demirci, İ., & Ekşi, H. (2018). Keep calm and be happy: A mixed method study from character strengths to well-being. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 18(2), 279–330. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2018.2.0799.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Pschological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575.
Diener, E., & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 653–663.
Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75.
Duckworth, A. L. (2006). Intelligence ıs not enough: Non-IQ predictors of achievement (Publication No. AAI3211063) [Doctoral dissertation, University Pennsylvania, United States]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Duckworth, A., & ve Gross, J. J. (2014). Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 319–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414541462.
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087.
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short GritScale (Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290.
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16(12), 939–944. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x.
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2006). Self-discipline gives girls the edge: Gender in self-discipline, grades, and achievement test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.198.
Ercoşkun, M. H. (2016). Adaptation of self-control and self-management scale (SCMS) into Turkish culture: A study on reliability and validity. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16, 1125–1145. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.4.2725.
Eysenck, S. B., Easting, G., & Pearson, P. (1984). Age norms for impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy in children. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 315–332.
Gillebaart, M., & de Ridder, D. T. (2015). Effortless self-control: A novel perspective on response conflict strategies in trait self-control. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(2), 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12160.
Goldberg, L. R. (1999). A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-evel facets of several five-factor models. Personality Psychology in Europe, 7(1), 7-28.
Goldberg, L. R., Johnson, J. A., Eber, H. W., Hogan, R., Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, C. R., & Gough, H. G. (2006). The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(1), 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.007.
Güneri Yöyen, E. (2016). A Turkish adaptation of short version of International Personality Inventory-IPI: Reliability and validity analysis. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 2(4), 1308-1321.
Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2019). Grit and self-discipline as predictors of effort and academic attainment. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 324–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12241.
Hagger, M. S., Zhang, C. Q., Kangro, E. M., Ries, F., Wang, J. C., Heritage, B., & Chan, D. K. (2018). Trait self-control and self-discipline: Structure, validity, and invariance across national groups. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0021-6.
Haktanir, A., Lenz, A. S., Can, N., & Watson, J. C. (2016). Development and evaluation of Turkish language versions of three positive psychology assessments. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 38(4), 286–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-016-9272-9.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Publications.
Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Strack, F. (2009). Impulse and self-control from a dual-systems perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(2), 162–176.
Hofmann, W., Luhmann, M., Fischer, R. R., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2013). Yes, but are they happy? Effects of trait self-control on affective well-being and life satisfaction. Journal of Personality, 82, 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12050.
Hong, P., & Cui, M. (2020). Helicopter parenting and college students’ psychological maladjustment: The role of self-control and living arrangement. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(2), 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01541-2.
Huta, V., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 735–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9171-4.
Joshanloo, M., Jovanović, V., & Park, J. (2020). Differential relationships of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being with self-control and long-term orientation. Japanese Psychological Research, 63, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12276.
Joshanloo, M., & Niknam, S. (2019). The tripartite model of mental well-being in Iran: Factorial and discriminant validity. Current Psychology, 38(1), 128–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9595-7.
Jung, K. R., Zhou, A. Q., & Lee, R. M. (2017). Self-efficacy, self-discipline and academic performance: Testing a context-specific mediation model. Learning and Individual Differences, 60, 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.10.004.
Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 219–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760802303044.
Kendall, P. C., & Wilcox, L. E. (1979). Self-control in children: Development of a rating scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 1020–1029.
Khalilzadeh, S., & Khodi, A. (2018). Teachers’ personality traits and students’ motivation: A structural equation modeling analysis. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0064-8.
Kirby, K. N., Petry, N. M., & Bickel, W. K. (1999). Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 78–87.
Kline, R. B. (2019). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (S. Şen, Trans.). Ankara: Nobel Akademi Publishing.
Köker, S. (1991). Normal ve sorunlu ergenlerin yaşam doyumu düzeylerinin karşılaştırılması [Comparison of normal and problematic adolescents' life satisfaction levels]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Ankara University, Ankara. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/
Lee, Y. C., Lin, Y. C., Huang, C. L., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). The construct and measurement of peace of mind. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(2), 571–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9343-5.
Li, J. B., Delvecchio, E., Lis, A., Nie, Y. G., & Di Riso, D. (2016). Positive coping as mediator between self-control and life satisfaction: Evidence from two Chinese samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 97, 130–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.042.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr., P. T. (2004). A contemplated revision of the NEO five-factor inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00118-1.
Mezo, P. G. (2009). The self-control and self-management scale (SCMS): Development of an adaptive self-regulatory coping skills instrument. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(2), 83–93.
Olčar, D., Rijavec, M., & Golub, T. L. (2019). Primary school teachers’ life satisfaction: The role of life goals, basic psychological needs and flow at work. Current Psychology, 38(2), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9611-y.
Ouyang, Y., Zhu, Y., Fan, W., Tan, Q., & Zhong, Y. (2015). People higher in self-control do not necessarily experience more happiness: Regulatory focus also affects subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 406–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.044.
Özdemir, Y., Kuzucu, Y., & Ak, Ş. (2014). Depression, loneliness and internet addiction: How important is low self-control? Computers in Human Behavior, 34, 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.009.
Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014996.
Roberts, B. W., Jackson, J. J., Fayard, J. V., Edmonds, G., & Meints, J. (2009). Conscientiousness. In M. Leary & R. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 369–381). New York: Guilford Press.
Ronen, T., Hamama, L., Rosenbaum, M., & Mishely-Yarlap, A. (2016). Subjective well-being in adolescence: The role of self-control, social support, age, gender, and familial crisis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(1), 81–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9585-5.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68.
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.
Şimşir, Z., & Dilmaç, B. (2020). Self-discipline in the life of university students: A qualitative research. Research on Education and Psychology (REP), 4(2), 153–171. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1343382.
Singh, K., & Jha, S. D. (2008). Positive and negative affect, and grit as predictors of happiness and life satisfaction. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 34(2), 40–45.
Stavrova, O., Pronk, T., & Kokkoris, M. D. (2018). Finding meaning in self-control: The effect of self-control on the perception of meaning in life. Self and Identity, 19(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1558107.
Steger, M. F. (2016). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and meaning: Me versus us; fleeting versus enduring. In J. Vittersø (Ed.), Handbook of eudaimonic well-being (pp. 175–182). Cham: Springer International.
Stevens, J. P. (2009). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (5th ed.). New York: Routledge.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
Tangney, J. P., Baumeıster, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72(2), 272–322.
Tsai, J. L. (2007). Ideal affect: Cultural causes and behavioral consequences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(3), 242–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00043.x.
Vainio, M. M., & Daukantaitė, D. (2016). Grit and different aspects of well-being: Direct and indirect relationships via sense of coherence and authenticity. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(5), 2119–2147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9688-7.
Vittersø, J., & Søholt, Y. (2011). Life satisfaction goes with pleasure and personal growth goes with interest: Further arguments for separating hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(4), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.584548.
Vohs, K. D., & Faber, R. J. (2007). Spent resources: Self-regulatory resource availability affects impulse buying. Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1086/510228.
Von Culin, K. R., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(4), 306–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320.
Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678–691.
Waterman, A. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: A eudaimonist's perspective. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760802303002.
Wiese, C. W., Tay, L., Duckworth, A. L., D’Mello, S., Kuykendall, L., Hofmann, W., Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2018). Too much of a good thing? Exploring the inverted-U relationship between self-control and happiness. Journal of Personality, 86(3), 380–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12322.
Xu, W., Rodriguez, M. A., Zhang, Q., & Liu, X. (2015). The mediating effect of self-acceptance in the relationship between mindfulness and peace of mind. Mindfulness, 6(4), 797–802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0319-x.
Yöyen, G. E. (2016). Uluslararası kişilik envanteri (IPI) kısa versiyonu’nun Türkçe’ye uyarlanması: Güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik analizi [A Turkish adaptation of short version of International Personality Inventory-IPI: Reliability and validity analysis]. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 2, 1308–1315.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2014). Comparing students’ self-discipline and self-regulation measures and their prediction of academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(2), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.03.004.
Acknowledgements
This paper was derived from the doctoral dissertation that prepared by Zeynep Şimşir under the advisory of Prof. Dr. Bülent Dilmaç.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
The study was in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained by all individual participants and their faculty deans and course lecturers.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Şimşir, Z., Dilmaç, B. The mediating roles of grit and life satisfaction in the relationship between self-discipline and peace: Development of the self-discipline scale. Curr Psychol 41, 8322–8332 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01515-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01515-y