Skip to main content

Mammalian DNA Damage Response Pathway

  • Chapter
Genome Instability in Cancer Development

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 570))

Conclusions

The DNA damage response pathway is critical for the maintenance of genomic stability. Many components of this pathway are tumour suppressors, such as p53, ATM, BRCA1, NBS1, Mre11 and Chk2, underlining the critical role of the DNA damage response pathway in tumour suppression. The elucidation of the DNA damage response pathway will not only help us understand the mechanism of tumour suppression, but also allow for the discovery of new drug targets for cancer therapy. A recent example is the development of MDM2 inhibitors that could activate the p53 pathway in cancer cells (Vassilev et al., 2004). With the help of proteomics and advances in imaging techniques, we should have a better understanding of the molecular events mediating the DNA damage response in the near future.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abraham, R.T. 1996. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase related kinases. Curr Opin Immunol. 8:412–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abraham, R.T. 2001. Cell cycle checkpoint signalling through the ATM and ATR kinases. Genes Dev. 15:2177–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahn, J., M. Urist, and C. Prives. 2003. Questioning the role of checkpoint kinase 2 in the p53 DNA damage response. J Biol Chem. 278:20480–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahn, J.Y., X. Li, H.L. Davis, and C.E. Canman. 2002. Phosphorylation of threonine 68 promotes oligomerization and autophosphorylation of the Chk2 protein kinase via the forkhead-associated domain. J Biol Chem. 277:19389–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahn, J.Y., J.K. Schwarz, H. Piwnica-Worms, and C.E. Canman. 2000. Threonine 68 phosphorylation by ataxia-telangiectasia mutated is required for efficient activation of Chk2 in response to ionizing radiation. Cancer Res. 60:5934–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, L., C. Henderson, and Y. Adachi. 2001. Phosphorylation and rapid relocalization of 53BP1 to nuclear foci upon DNA damage. Mol Cell Biol. 21:1719–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakkenist, C.J., and M.B. Kastan. 2003. DNA damage activates ATM through intermolecular autophosphorylation and dimer dissociation. Nature. 421:499–506.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banin, S., L. Moyal, S. Shieh, Y. Taya, C.W. Anderson, L. Chessa, N.I. Smorodinsky, C. Prives, Y. Reiss, Y. Shiloh, and Y. Ziv. 1998. Enhanced phosphorylation of p53 by ATM in response to DNA damage. Science. 281:1674–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bao, S., R.S. Tibbetts, K.M. Brumbaugh, Y. Fang, D.A. Richardson, A. Ali, S.M. Chen, R.T. Abraham, and X.F. Wang. 2001. ATR/ATM-mediated phosphorylation of human Rad17 is required for genotoxic stress responses. Nature. 411:969–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, C., S. Hirotsune, R. Paylor, M. Liyanage, M. Eckhaus, F. Collins, Y. Shiloh, J.N. Crawley, T. Ried, D. Tagle, and A. Wynshaw-Boris. 1996. Atm-deficient mice: a paradigm of ataxia-telangiectasia. Cell. 86:159–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, S.M., C.G. Leung, E.E. Chang, and K.A. Cimprich. 2003. ATR kinase activity regulates the intranuclear translocation of ATR and RPA following ionizing radiation. Curr Biol. 13:1047–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartek, J., J. Falck, and J. Lukas. 2001. CHK2_kinase—a busy messenger. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2:877–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassing, C.H., K.F. Chua, J. Sekiguchi, H. Suh, S.R. Whitlow, J.C. Fleming, B.C. Monroe, D.N. Ciccone, C. Yan, K. Vlasakova, D.M. Livingston, D.O. Ferguson, R. Scully, and F.W. Alt. 2002. Increased ionizing radiation sensitivity and genomic instability in the absence of histone H2AX. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 99:8173–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassing, C.H., H. Suh, D.O. Ferguson, K.F. Chua, J. Manis, M. Eckersdorff, M. Gleason, R. Bronson, C. Lee, and F.W. Alt. 2003. Histone H2AX: a dosage-dependent suppressor of oncogenic translocations and tumors. Cell. 114:359–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D.W., J.M. Varley, T.E. Szydlo, D.H. Kang, D.C. Wahrer, K.E. Shannon, M. Lubratovich, S.J. Verselis, K.J. Isselbacher, J.F. Fraumeni, J.M. Birch, F.P. Li, J.E. Garber, and D.A. Haber. 1999. Heterozygous germ line hCHK2 mutations in Li-Fraumeni syndrome. Science. 286:2528–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bermudez, V.P., L.A. Lindsey-Boltz, A.J. Cesare, Y. Maniwa, J.D. Griffith, J. Hurwitz, and A. Sancar. 2003. Loading of the human 9-1-1 checkpoint complex onto DNA by the checkpoint clamp loader hRad17-replication factor C complex in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100:1633–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bomgarden, R.D., D. Yean, M.C. Yee, and K.A. Cimprich. 2004. A novel protein activity mediates DNA binding of an ATR-ATRIP complex. J Biol Chem. 279:13346–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradbury, J.M., and S.P. Jackson. 2003. The complex matter of DNA double-strand break detection. Biochem Soc Trans. 31:40–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E.J., and D. Baltimore. 2000. ATR disruption leads to chromosomal fragmentation and early embryonic lethality. Genes Dev. 14:397–402.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E.J., and D. Baltimore. 2003. Essential and dispensable roles of ATR in cell cycle arrest and genome maintenance. Genes Dev. 17:615–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brumbaugh, K.M., D.M. Otterness, C. Geisen, V. Oliveira, J. Brognard, X. Li, F. Lejeune, R.S. Tibbetts, L.E. Maquat, and R.T. Abraham. 2004. The mRNA surveillance protein hSMG-1 functions in genotoxic stress response pathways in mammalian cells. Mol Cell. 14:585–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brzovic, P.S., J.R. Keeffe, H. Nishikawa, K. Miyamoto, D. Fox, 3rd, M. Fukuda, T. Ohta, and R. Klevit. 2003. Binding and recognition in the assembly of an active BRCA1/BARD1 ubiquitin-ligase complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100:5646–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burma, S., B.P. Chen, M. Murphy, A. Kurimasa, and D.J. Chen. 2001. ATM phosphorylates histone H2AX in response to DNA double-strand breaks. J Biol Chem. 276:42462–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, T.F., and W.S. El-Deiry. 1999. The p53 pathway and apoptosis. J Cell Physiol. 181:231–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Busino, L., M. Chiesa, G.F. Draetta, and M. Donzelli. 2004. Cdc25A phosphatase: combinatorial phosphorylation, ubiquitylation and proteolysis. Oncogene. 23:2050–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Canman, C.E., D.S. Lim, K.A. Cimprich, Y. Taya, K. Tamai, K. Sakaguchi, E. Appella, M.B. Kastan, and J.D. Siliciano. 1998. Activation of the ATM kinase by ionizing radiation and phosphorylation of p53. Science. 281:1677–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, S.B., D.W. Bell, S. Ganesan, E.M. Kass, R. Drapkin, S. Grossman, D.C. Wahrer, D.C. Sgroi, W.S. Lane, D.A. Haber, and D.M. Livingston. 2001. BACH1, a novel helicase-like protein, interacts directly with BRCA1 and contributes to its DNA repair function. Cell. 105:149–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carney, J.P., R.S. Maser, H. Olivares, E.M. Davis, M. Le Beau, J.R. Yates, 3rd, L. Hays, W.F. Morgan, and J.H. Petrini. 1998. The hMre11/hRad50 protein complex and Nijmegen breakage syndrome: linkage of double-strand break repair to the cellular DNA damage response. Cell. 93:477–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carson, C.T., R.A. Schwartz, T.H. Stracker, C.E. Lilley, D.V. Lee, and M.D. Weitzman. 2003. The Mre11 complex is required for ATM activation and the G2/M checkpoint. EMBO J. 22:6610–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Celeste, A., S. Difilippantonio, M.J. Difilippantonio, O. Fernandez-Capetillo, D.R. Pilch, O.A. Sedelnikova, M. Eckhaus, T. Ried, W.M. Bonner, and A. Nussenzweig. 2003a. H2AX haploinsufficiency modifies genomic stability and tumor susceptibility. Cell. 114:371–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Celeste, A., O. Fernandez-Capetillo, M.J. Kruhlak, D.R. Pilch, D.W. Staudt, A. Lee, R.F. Bonner, W.M. Bonner, and A. Nussenzweig. 2003b. Histone H2AX phosphorylation is dispensable for the initial recognition of DNA breaks. Nat Cell Biol. 5:675–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Celeste, A., S. Petersen, P.J. Romanienko, O. Fernandez-Capetillo, H.T. Chen, O.A. Sedelnikova, B. Reina-San-Martin, V. Coppola, E. Meffre, M.J. Difilippantonio, C. Redon, D.R. Pilch, A. Olaru, M. Eckhaus, R.D. Camerini-Otero, L. Tessarollo, F. Livak, K. Manova, W.M. Bonner, M.C. Nussenzweig, and A. Nussenzweig. 2002. Genomic instability in mice lacking histone H2AX. Science. 296:922–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cerosaletti, K.M., and P. Concannon. 2003. Nibrin forkhead-associated domain and breast cancer C-terminal domain are both required for nuclear focus formation and phosphorylation. J Biol Chem. 278:21944–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chehab, N.H., A. Malikzay, M. Appel, and T.D. Halazonetis. 2000. Chk2/hCds1 functions as a DNA damage checkpoint in G(1) by stabilizing p53. Genes Dev. 14:278–88.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chehab, N.H., A. Malikzay, E.S. Stavridi, and T.D. Halazonetis. 1999. Phosphorylation of Ser-20 mediates stabilization of human p53 in response to DNA damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 96:13777–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, A., F.E. Kleiman, J.L. Manley, T. Ouchi, and Z.Q. Pan. 2002. Autoubiquitination of the BRCA1*BARD1 RING ubiquitin ligase. J Biol Chem. 277:22085–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, M.S., J. Hurov, L.S. White, T. Woodford-Thomas, and H. Piwnica-Worms. 2001. Absence of apparent phenotype in mice lacking Cdc25C protein phosphatase. Mol Cell Biol. 21:3853–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., and Y. Sanchez. 2004. Chk1 in the DNA damage response: conserved roles from yeasts to mammals. DNA Repair (Amst). 3:1025–32.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chini, C.C., and J. Chen. 2003. Human claspin is required for replication checkpoint control. J Biol Chem. 278:30057–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cliby, W.A., C.J. Roberts, K.A. Cimprich, C.M. Stringer, J.R. Lamb, S.L. Schreiber, and S.H. Friend. 1998. Overexpression of a kinase-inactive ATR protein causes sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents and defects in cell cycle checkpoints. EMBO J. 17:159–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cortez, D., S. Guntuku, J. Qin, and S.J. Elledge. 2001. ATR and ATRIP: partners in checkpoint signalling. Science. 294:1713–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costanzo, V., T. Paull, M. Gottesman, and J. Gautier. 2004. Mre11 assembles linear DNA fragments into DNA damage signalling complexes. PLoS Biol. 2:E110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Jager, M., J. van Noort, D.C. van Gent, C. Dekker, R. Kanaar, and C. Wyman. 2001. Human Rad50/Mre11 is a flexible complex that can tether DNA ends. Mol Cell. 8:1129–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Klein, A., M. Muijtjens, R. van Os, Y. Verhoeven, B. Smit, A.M. Carr, A.R. Lehmann, and J.H. Hoeijmakers. 2000. Targeted disruption of the cell-cycle checkpoint gene ATR leads to early embryonic lethality in mice. Curr Biol. 10:479–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, C., P. Zhang, J.W. Harper, S.J. Elledge, and P. Leder. 1995. Mice lacking p21CIP1/WAF1 undergo normal development, but are defective in G1 checkpoint control. Cell. 82:675–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, C.X., and S.G. Brodie. 2000. Roles of BRCA1 and its interacting proteins. Bioessays. 22:728–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiTullio, R.A., Jr., T.A. Mochan, M. Venere, J. Bartkova, M. Sehested, J. Bartek, and T.D. Halazonetis. 2002. 53BP1 functions in an ATM-dependent checkpoint pathway that is constitutively activated in human cancer. Nat Cell Biol. 4:998–1002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dumaz, N., and D.W. Meek. 1999. Serine15 phosphorylation stimulates p53 transactivation but does not directly influence interaction with HDM2. EMBO J. 18:7002–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dumont, P., J.I. Leu, A.C. Della Pietra, 3rd, D.L. George, and M. Murphy. 2003. The codon 72 polymorphic variants of p53 have markedly different apoptotic potential. Nat Genet. 33:357–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durocher, D., and S.P. Jackson. 2002. The FHA domain. FEBS Lett. 513:58–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • el-Deiry, W.S., J.W. Harper, P.M. O’Connor, V.E. Velculescu, C.E. Canman, J. Jackman, J.A. Pietenpol, M. Burrell, D.E. Hill, Y. Wang, and et al. 1994. WAF1/CIP1 is induced in p53-mediated G1 arrest and apoptosis. Cancer Res. 54:1169–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • el-Deiry, W.S., T. Tokino, V.E. Velculescu, D.B. Levy, R. Parsons, J.M. Trent, D. Lin, W.E. Mercer, K.W. Kinzler, and B. Vogelstein. 1993. WAF1, a potential mediator of p53 tumor suppression. Cell. 75:817–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elson, A., Y. Wang, C.J. Daugherty, C.C. Morton, F. Zhou, J. Campos-Torres, and P. Leder. 1996. Pleiotropic defects in ataxia-telangiectasia protein-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 93:13084–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falck, J., N. Mailand, R.G. Syljuasen, J. Bartek, and J. Lukas. 2001. The ATM-Chk2-Cdc25A checkpoint pathway guards against radioresistant DNA synthesis. Nature. 410:842–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falck, J., J.H. Petrini, B.R. Williams, J. Lukas, and J. Bartek. 2002. The DNA damage-dependent intra-S phase checkpoint is regulated by parallel pathways. Nat Genet. 30:290–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fei, P., and W.S. El-Deiry. 2003. P53 and radiation responses. Oncogene. 22:5774–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Capetillo, O., A. Celeste, and A. Nussenzweig. 2003a. Focusing on foci: H2AX and the recruitment of DNA damage response factors. Cell Cycle. 2:426–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Capetillo, O., H.T. Chen, A. Celeste, I. Ward, P.J. Romanienko, J.C. Morales, K. Naka, Z. Xia, R.D. Camerini-Otero, N. Motoyama, P.B. Carpenter, W.M. Bonner, J. Chen, and A. Nussenzweig. 2002. DNA damage-induced G2-M checkpoint activation by histone H2AX and 53BP1. Nat Cell Biol. 4:993–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Capetillo, O., S.K. Mahadevaiah, A. Celeste, P.J. Romanienko, R.D. Camerini-Otero, W.M. Bonner, K. Manova, P. Burgoyne, and A. Nussenzweig. 2003b. H2AX is required for chromatin remodeling and inactivation of sex chromosomes in male mouse meiosis. Dev Cell. 4:497–508.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franchitto, A., P. Pichierri, R. Piergentili, M. Crescenzi, M. Bignami, and F. Palitti. 2003. The mammalian mismatch repair protein MSH2 is required for correct MRE11 and RAD51 relocalization and for efficient cell cycle arrest induced by ionizing radiation in G2 phase. Oncogene. 22:2110–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatei, M., K. Sloper, C. Sorensen, R. Syljuasen, J. Falck, K. Hobson, K. Savage, J. Lukas, B.B. Zhou, J. Bartek, and K.K. Khanna. 2003. Ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) and NBS1-dependent phosphorylation of Chk1 on Ser-317 in response to ionizing radiation. J Biol Chem. 278:14806–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatei, M., D. Young, K.M. Cerosaletti, A. Desai-Mehta, K. Spring, S. Kozlov, M.F. Lavin, R.A. Gatti, P. Concannon, and K. Khanna. 2000. ATM-dependent phosphorylation of nibrin in response to radiation exposure. Nat Genet. 25:115–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giaccia, A.J., and M.B. Kastan. 1998. The complexity of p53 modulation: emerging patterns from divergent signals. Genes Dev. 12:2973–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, M., M. Stucki, J. Falck, D. D’Amours, D. Rahman, D. Pappin, J. Bartek, and S.P. Jackson. 2003. MDC1 is required for the intra-S-phase DNA damage checkpoint. Nature. 421:952–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gowen, L.C., B.L. Johnson, A.M. Latour, K.K. Sulik, and B.H. Koller. 1996. Brca1 deficiency results in early embryonic lethality characterized by neuroepithelial abnormalities. Nat Genet. 12:191–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J.D., L.A. Lindsey-Boltz, and A. Sancar. 2002. Structures of the human Rad17-replication factor C and checkpoint Rad 9-1-1 complexes visualized by glycerol spray/low voltage microscopy. J Biol Chem. 277:15233–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, S.R., M.E. Deato, C. Brignone, H.M. Chan, A.L. Kung, H. Tagami, Y. Nakatani, and D.M. Livingston. 2003. Polyubiquitination of p53 by a ubiquitin ligase activity of p300. Science. 300:342–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hahn, W.C., and R.A. Weinberg. 2002. Rules for making human tumor cells. N Engl J Med. 347:1593–603.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hakem, R., J.L. de la Pompa, C. Sirard, R. Mo, M. Woo, A. Hakem, A. Wakeham, J. Potter, A. Reitmair, F. Billia, E. Firpo, C.C. Hui, J. Roberts, J. Rossant, and T.W. Mak. 1996. The tumor suppressor gene Brca1 is required for embryonic cellular proliferation in the mouse. Cell. 85:1009–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J.W., G.R. Adami, N. Wei, K. Keyomarsi, and S.J. Elledge. 1993. The p21 Cdk-interacting protein Cip1 is a potent inhibitor of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. Cell. 75:805–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume, R., M. Fukuda, I. Maeda, H. Nishikawa, D. Oyake, Y. Yabuki, H. Ogata, and T. Ohta. 2001. The RING heterodimer BRCA1-BARD1 is a ubiquitin ligase inactivated by a breast cancer-derived mutation. J Biol Chem. 276:14537–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirao, A., A. Cheung, G. Duncan, P.M. Girard, A.J. Elia, A. Wakeham, H. Okada, T. Sarkissian, J.A. Wong, T. Sakai, E. De Stanchina, R.G. Bristow, T. Suda, S.W. Lowe, P.A. Jeggo, S.J. Elledge, and T.W. Mak. 2002. Chk2 is a tumor suppressor that regulates apoptosis in both an ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent and an ATM-independent manner. Mol Cell Biol. 22:6521–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirao, A., Y.Y. Kong, S. Matsuoka, A. Wakeham, J. Ruland, H. Yoshida, D. Liu, S.J. Elledge, and T.W. Mak. 2000. DNA damage-induced activation of p53 by the checkpoint kinase Chk2. Science. 287:1824–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopfner, K.P., L. Craig, G. Moncalian, R.A. Zinkel, T. Usui, B.A. Owen, A. Karcher, B. Henderson, J.L. Bodmer, C.T. McMurray, J.P. Carney, J.H. Petrini, and J.A. Tainer. 2002. The Rad50 zinc-hook is a structure joining Mre11 complexes in DNA recombination and repair. Nature. 418:562–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horejsi, Z., J. Falck, C.J. Bakkenist, M.B. Kastan, J. Lukas, and J. Bartek. 2004. Distinct functional domains of Nbs1 modulate the timing and magnitude of ATM activation after low doses of ionizing radiation. Oncogene. 23:3122–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iliakis, G., Y. Wang, J. Guan, and H. Wang. 2003. DNA damage checkpoint control in cells exposed to ionizing radiation. Oncogene. 22:5834–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iwabuchi, K., P.L. Bartel, B. Li, R. Marraccino, and S. Fields. 1994. Two cellular proteins that bind to wild-type but not mutant p53. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 91:6098–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jack, M.T., R.A. Woo, A. Hirao, A. Cheung, T.W. Mak, and P.W. Lee. 2002. Chk2 is dispensable for p53-mediated G1 arrest but is required for a latent p53-mediated apoptotic response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 99:9825–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, A.P., H. Eastwood, S.M. Bell, J. Adu, C. Toomes, I.M. Carr, E. Roberts, D.J. Hampshire, Y.J. Crow, A.J. Mighell, G. Karbani, H. Jafri, Y. Rashid, R.F. Mueller, A.F. Markham, and C.G. Woods. 2002. Identification of microcephalin, a protein implicated in determining the size of the human brain. Am J Hum Genet. 71:136–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jallepalli, P.V., C. Lengauer, B. Vogelstein, and F. Bunz. 2003. The Chk2 tumor suppressor is not required for p53 responses in human cancer cells. J Biol Chem. 278:20475–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffers, J.R., E. Parganas, Y. Lee, C. Yang, J. Wang, J. Brennan, K.H. MacLean, J. Han, T. Chittenden, J.N. Ihle, P.J. McKinnon, J.L. Cleveland, and G.P. Zambetti. 2003. Puma is an essential mediator of p53-dependent and-independent apoptotic pathways. Cancer Cell. 4:321–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kastan, M.B., and D.S. Lim. 2000. The many substrates and functions of ATM. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 1:179–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kentsis, A., R.E. Gordon, and K.L. Borden. 2002. Control of biochemical reactions through supramolecular RING domain self-assembly. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 99:15404–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, P., and A. Ashworth. 2001. New complexities for BRCA1 and BRCA2. Curr Biol. 11:R668–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, K.K., K.E. Keating, S. Kozlov, S. Scott, M. Gatei, K. Hobson, Y. Taya, B. Gabrielli, D. Chan, S.P. Lees-Miller, and M.F. Lavin. 1998. ATM associates with and phosphorylates p53: mapping the region of interaction. Nat Genet. 20:398–400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S.T., B. Xu, and M.B. Kastan. 2002. Involvement of the cohesin protein, Smc1, in Atm-dependent and independent responses to DNA damage. Genes Dev. 16:560–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kitagawa, R., C.J. Bakkenist, P.J. McKinnon, and M.B. Kastan. 2004. Phosphorylation of SMC1 is a critical downstream event in the ATM-NBS1-BRCA1 pathway. Genes Dev. 18:1423–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ko, L.J., and C. Prives. 1996. p53: puzzle and paradigm. Genes Dev. 10:1054–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kobayashi, J., H. Tauchi, S. Sakamoto, A. Nakamura, K. Morishima, S. Matsuura, T. Kobayashi, K. Tamai, K. Tanimoto, and K. Komatsu. 2002. NBS1 localizes to gamma-H2AX foci through interaction with the FHA/BRCT domain. Curr Biol. 12:1846–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuerbitz, S.J., B.S. Plunkett, W.V. Walsh, and M.B. Kastan. 1992. Wild-type p53 is a cell cycle checkpoint determinant following irradiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 89:7491–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumagai, A., and W.G. Dunphy. 1996. Purification and molecular cloning of Plx1, a Cdc25-regulatory kinase from Xenopus egg extracts. Science. 273:1377–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumagai, A., and W.G. Dunphy. 2000. Claspin, a novel protein required for the activation of Chk1 during a DNA replication checkpoint response in Xenopus egg extracts. Mol Cell. 6:839–49.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, M.H., Q. Liu, S.J. Elledge, and J.M. Rosen. 2004. Chk1 is haploinsufficient for multiple functions critical to tumor suppression. Cancer Cell. 6:45–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C.H., and J.H. Chung. 2001. The hCds1 (Chk2)-FHA domain is essential for a chain of phosphorylation events on hCds1 that is induced by ionizing radiation. J Biol Chem. 276:30537–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J., A. Kumagai, and W.G. Dunphy. 2003. Claspin, a Chk1-regulatory protein, monitors DNA replication on chromatin independently of RPA, ATR, and Rad17. Mol Cell. 11:329–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J.H., and T.T. Paull. 2004. Direct activation of the ATM protein kinase by the Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 complex. Science. 304:93–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, D.S., S.T. Kim, B. Xu, R.S. Maser, J. Lin, J.H. Petrini, and M.B. Kastan. 2000. ATM phosphorylates p95/nbs1 in an S-phase checkpoint pathway. Nature. 404:613–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, S.Y., and S.J. Elledge. 2003. Multiple tumor suppressor pathways negatively regulate telomerase. Cell. 113:881–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, S.Y., K. Li, G.S. Stewart, and S.J. Elledge. 2004. Human Claspin works with BRCA1 to both positively and negatively regulate cell proliferation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101:6484–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey-Boltz, L.A., V.P. Bermudez, J. Hurwitz, and A. Sancar. 2001. Purification and characterization of human DNA damage checkpoint Rad complexes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 98:11236–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, C.Y., A. Flesken-Nikitin, S. Li, Y. Zeng, and W.H. Lee. 1996. Inactivation of the mouse Brca1 gene leads to failure in the morphogenesis of the egg cylinder in early postimplantation development. Genes Dev. 10:1835–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, K., F.T. Lin, J.M. Ruppert, and W.C. Lin. 2003. Regulation of E2F1 by BRCT domain-containing protein TopBP1. Mol Cell Biol. 23:3287–304.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, K., Y. Luo, F.T. Lin, and W.C. Lin. 2004. TopBP1 recruits Brg1/Brm to repress E2F1-induced apoptosis, a novel pRb-independent and E2F1-specific control for cell survival. Genes Dev. 18:673–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Q., S. Guntuku, X.S. Cui, S. Matsuoka, D. Cortez, K. Tamai, G. Luo, S. Carattini-Rivera, F. DeMayo, A. Bradley, L.A. Donehower, and S.J. Elledge. 2000. Chk1 is an essential kinase that is regulated by Atr and required for the G(2)/M DNA damage checkpoint. Genes Dev. 14:1448–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorick, K.L., J.P. Jensen, S. Fang, A.M. Ong, S. Hatakeyama, and A.M. Weissman. 1999. RING fingers mediate ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2)-dependent ubiquitination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 96:11364–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, Z., and J. Chen. 2003. BRCA proteins and DNA damage checkpoints. Front Biosci. 8:s718–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, Z., C.C. Chini, K. Minter-Dykhouse, and J. Chen. 2003a. Mediator of DNA damage checkpoint protein 1 regulates BRCA1 localization and phosphorylation in DNA damage checkpoint control. J Biol Chem. 278:13599–602.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, Z., K. Minter-Dykhouse, X. Wu, and J. Chen. 2003b. MDC1 is coupled to activated CHK2 in mammalian DNA damage response pathways. Nature. 421:957–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, T., D.L. Chapman, V.E. Papaioannou, and A. Efstratiadis. 1997. Targeted mutations of breast cancer susceptibility gene homologs in mice: lethal phenotypes of Brca1, Brca2, Brca1/Brca2, Brca1/p53, and Brca2/p53 nullizygous embryos. Genes Dev. 11:1226–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, T., P. Fisher, S. Ganesan, and A. Efstratiadis. 2001. Tumorigenesis in mice carrying a truncating Brca1 mutation. Genes Dev. 15:1188–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lupardus, P.J., T. Byun, M.C. Yee, M. Hekmat-Nejad, and K.A. Cimprich. 2002. A requirement for replication in activation of the ATR-dependent DNA damage checkpoint. Genes Dev. 16:2327–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makiniemi, M., T. Hillukkala, J. Tuusa, K. Reini, M. Vaara, D. Huang, H. Pospiech, I. Majuri, T. Westerling, T.P. Makela, and J.E. Syvaoja. 2001. BRCT domain-containing protein TopBP1 functions in DNA replication and damage response. J Biol Chem. 276:30399–406.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mallery, D.L., C.J. Vandenberg, and K. Hiom. 2002. Activation of the E3 ligase function of the BRCA1/BARD1 complex by polyubiquitin chains. EMBO J. 21:6755–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manis, J.P., J.C. Morales, Z. Xia, J.L. Kutok, F.W. Alt, and P.B. Carpenter. 2004. 53BP1 links DNA damage-response pathways to immunoglobulin heavy chain class-switch recombination. Nat Immunol. 5:481–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manke, I.A., D.M. Lowery, A. Nguyen, and M.B. Yaffe. 2003. BRCT repeats as phosphopeptide-binding modules involved in protein targeting. Science. 302:636–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuoka, S., M. Huang, and S.J. Elledge. 1998. Linkage of ATM to cell cycle regulation by the Chk2 protein kinase. Science. 282:1893–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuoka, S., G. Rotman, A. Ogawa, Y. Shiloh, K. Tamai, and S.J. Elledge. 2000. Ataxiatelangiectasia-mutated phosphorylates Chk2 in vivo and in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 97:10389–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maya, R., M. Balass, S.T. Kim, D. Shkedy, J.F. Leal, O. Shifman, M. Moas, T. Buschmann, Z. Ronai, Y. Shiloh, M.B. Kastan, E. Katzir, and M. Oren. 2001. ATM-dependent phosphorylation of Mdm2 on serine 395: role in p53 activation by DNA damage. Genes Dev. 15:1067–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, C.H. 2002. Checking in on Cds1 (Chk2): A checkpoint kinase and tumor suppressor. Bioessays. 24:502–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, J.P., B. Lemmers, A. Hirao, A. Hakem, J. Abraham, E. Migon, E. Matysiak-Zablocki, L. Tamblyn, O. Sanchez-Sweatman, R. Khokha, J. Squire, M.P. Hande, T.W. Mak, and R. Hakem. 2004. Collaboration of Brca1 and Chk2 in tumorigenesis. Genes Dev. 18:1144–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meijers-Heijboer, H., A. van den Ouweland, J. Klijn, M. Wasielewski, A. de Snoo, R. Oldenburg, A. Hollestelle, M. Houben, E. Crepin, M. van Veghel-Plandsoen, F. Elstrodt, C. van Duijn, C. Bartels, C. Meijers, M. Schutte, L. McGuffog, D. Thompson, D. Easton, N. Sodha, S. Seal, R. Barfoot, J. Mangion, J. Chang-Claude, D. Eccles, R. Eeles, D.G. Evans, R. Houlston, V. Murday, S. Narod, T. Peretz, J. Peto, C. Phelan, H.X. Zhang, C. Szabo, P. Devilee, D. Goldgar, P.A. Futreal, K.L. Nathanson, B. Weber, N. Rahman, and M.R. Stratton. 2002. Low-penetrance susceptibility to breast cancer due to CHEK2(*)1100delC in noncarriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Nat Genet. 31:55–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melchionna, R., X.B. Chen, A. Blasina, and C.H. McGowan. 2000. Threonine 68 is required for radiation-induced phosphorylation and activation of Cds1. Nat Cell Biol. 2:762–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mihara, M., S. Erster, A. Zaika, O. Petrenko, T. Chittenden, P. Pancoska, and U.M. Moll. 2003. p53 has a direct apoptogenic role at the mitochondria. Mol Cell. 11:577–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miki, Y., J. Swensen, D. Shattuck-Eidens, P.A. Futreal, K. Harshman, S. Tavtigian, Q. Liu, C. Cochran, L.M. Bennett, W. Ding, and et al. 1994. A strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1. Science. 266:66–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mochan, T.A., M. Venere, R.A. DiTullio, Jr., and T.D. Halazonetis. 2003. 53BP1 and NFBD1/MDC1-Nbs1 function in parallel interacting pathways activating ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) in response to DNA damage. Cancer Res. 63:8586–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morales, J.C., Z. Xia, T. Lu, M.B. Aldrich, B. Wang, C. Rosales, R.E. Kellems, W.N. Hittelman, S.J. Elledge, and P.B. Carpenter. 2003. Role for the BRCA1 C-terminal repeats (BRCT) protein 53BP1 in maintaining genomic stability. J Biol Chem. 278:14971–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, J.R., and E. Solomon. 2004. BRCA1: BARD1 induces the formation of conjugated ubiquitin structures, dependent on K6 of ubiquitin, in cells during DNA replication and repair. Hum Mol Genet. 13:807–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Motoyama, N., and K. Naka. 2004. DNA damage tumor suppressor genes and genomic instability. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 14:11–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Driscoll, M., V.L. Ruiz-Perez, C.G. Woods, P.A. Jeggo, and J.A. Goodship. 2003. A splicing mutation affecting expression of ataxia-telangiectasia and Rad3-related protein (ATR) results in Seckel syndrome. Nat Genet. 33:497–501.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Painter, R.B., and B.R. Young. 1980. Radiosensitivity in ataxia-telangiectasia: a new explanation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 77:7315–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parrilla-Castellar, E.R., and L.M. Karnitz. 2003. Cut5 is required for the binding of Atr and DNA polymerase alpha to genotoxin-damaged chromatin. J Biol Chem. 278:45507–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paull, T.T., and M. Gellert. 1998. The 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity of Mre 11 facilitates repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Mol Cell. 1:969–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paull, T.T., E.P. Rogakou, V. Yamazaki, C.U. Kirchgessner, M. Gellert, and W.M. Bonner. 2000. A critical role for histone H2AX in recruitment of repair factors to nuclear foci after DNA damage. Curr Biol. 10:886–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, A., and P.L. Chen. 2003. NFBD1, like 53BP1, is an early and redundant transducer mediating Chk2 phosphorylation in response to DNA damage. J Biol Chem. 278:8873–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, C.Y., P.R. Graves, R.S. Thoma, Z. Wu, A.S. Shaw, and H. Piwnica-Worms. 1997. Mitotic and G2 checkpoint control: regulation of 14-3-3 protein binding by phosphorylation of Cdc25C on serine-216. Science. 277:1501–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petrini, J.H., and T.H. Stracker. 2003. The cellular response to DNA double-strand breaks: defining the sensors and mediators. Trends Cell Biol. 13:458–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Y.W., E. Erikson, C. Li, and J.L. Maller. 1998. Activated polo-like kinase Plx1 is required at multiple points during mitosis in Xenopus laevis. Mol Cell Biol. 18:4262–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rappold, I., K. Iwabuchi, T. Date, and J. Chen. 2001a. Tumor suppressor p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is involved in DNA damage-signalling pathways. J Cell Biol. 153:613–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rappold, I., K. Iwabuchi, T. Date, and J. Chen. 2001b. Tumor suppressor p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is involved in DNA damage-signalling pathways. J Cell Biol. 153:613–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauen, M., M.A. Burtelow, V.M. Dufault, and L.M. Karnitz. 2000. The human checkpoint protein hRad17 interacts with the PCNA-like proteins hRad1, hHus1, and hRad9. J Biol Chem. 275:29767–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogakou, E.P., C. Boon, C. Redon, and W.M. Bonner. 1999. Megabase chromatin domains involved in DNA double-strand breaks in vivo. J Cell Biol. 146:905–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogakou, E.P., D.R. Pilch, A.H. Orr, V.S. Ivanova, and W.M. Bonner. 1998. DNA double-stranded breaks induce histone H2AX phosphorylation on serine 139. J Biol Chem. 273:5858–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roos-Mattjus, P., B.T. Vroman, M.A. Burtelow, M. Rauen, A.K. Eapen, and L.M. Karnitz. 2002. Genotoxin-induced Rad9-Hus1-Rad1 (9-1-1) chromatin association is an early checkpoint signalling event. J Biol Chem. 277:43809–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rouse, J., and S.P. Jackson. 2002. Interfaces between the detection, signalling, and repair of DNA damage. Science. 297:547–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruffner, H., C.A. Joazeiro, D. Hemmati, T. Hunter, and I.M. Verma. 2001. Cancer-predisposing mutations within the RING domain of BRCA1: loss of ubiquitin protein ligase activity and protection from radiation hypersensitivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 98:5134–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sancar, A., L.A. Lindsey-Boltz, K. Unsal-Kaccmaz, and S. Linn. 2004. Molecular Mechanisms of Mammalian DNA Repair and the DNA Damage Checkpoints. Annu Rev Biochem. 73:39–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, Y., C. Wong, R.S. Thoma, R. Richman, Z. Wu, H. Piwnica-Worms, and S.J. Elledge. 1997. Conservation of the Chk1 checkpoint pathway in mammals: linkage of DNA damage to Cdk regulation through Cdc25. Science. 277:1497–501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sar, F., L.A. Lindsey-Boltz, D. Subramanian, D.L. Croteau, S.Q. Hutsell, J.D. Griffith, and A. Sancar. 2004. Human claspin is a ring-shaped DNA binding protein with high affinity to branched DNA structures. J Biol Chem.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, L.B., N.H. Chehab, A. Malikzay, and T.D. Halazonetis. 2000. p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is an early participant in the cellular response to DNA double-strand breaks. J Cell Biol. 151:1381–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, J.K., C.M. Lovly, and H. Piwnica-Worms. 2003. Regulation of the Chk2 protein kinase by oligomerization-mediated cis-and trans-phosphorylation. Mol Cancer Res. 1:598–609.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scully, R., and D.M. Livingston. 2000. In search of the tumour-suppressor functions of BRCA1 and BRCA2. Nature. 408:429–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scully, R., A. Xie, and G. Nagaraju. 2004. Molecular Functions of BRCA1 in the DNA Damage Response. Cancer Biol Ther. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shang, Y., A. Bodero, and P. Chen. 2002. NFBD1, a novel nuclear protein with signature motifs of FHA and BRCT, and an internal 41 amino acid repeat sequence, is an early participant in DNA damage response. J. Biol. Chem. 278:6323–6329.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen, S.X., Z. Weaver, X. Xu, C. Li, M. Weinstein, L. Chen, X.Y. Guan, T. Ried, and C.X. Deng. 1998. A targeted disruption of the murine Brca1 gene causes gamma-irradiation hypersensitivity and genetic instability. Oncogene. 17:3115–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiloh, Y. 2003. ATM and related protein kinases: safeguarding genome integrity. Nat Rev Cancer. 3:155–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smits, V.A., R. Klompmaker, L. Arnaud, G. Rijksen, E.A. Nigg, and R.H. Medema. 2000. Polo-like kinase-1 is a target of the DNA damage checkpoint. Nat Cell Biol. 2:672–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sorensen, C.S., R.G. Syljuasen, J. Falck, T. Schroeder, L. Ronnstrand, K.K. Khanna, B.B. Zhou, J. Bartek, and J. Lukas. 2003. Chk1 regulates the S phase checkpoint by coupling the physiological turnover and ionizing radiation-induced accelerated proteolysis of Cdc25A. Cancer Cell. 3:247–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, C., L. Smith, and N.B. La Thangue. 2003. Chk2 activates E2F-1 in response to DNA damage. Nat Cell Biol. 5:401–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, G.S., R.S. Maser, T. Stankovic, D.A. Bressan, M.I. Kaplan, N.G. Jaspers, A. Raams, P.J. Byrd, J.H. Petrini, and A.M. Taylor. 1999. The DNA double-strand break repair gene hMRE11 is mutated in individuals with an ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder. Cell. 99:577–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, G.S., B. Wang, C.R. Bignell, A.M. Taylor, and S.J. Elledge. 2003. MDC1 is a mediator of the mammalian DNA damage checkpoint. Nature. 421:961–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stiff, T., M. O’Driscoll, N. Rief, K. Iwabuchi, M. Lobrich, and P.A. Jeggo. 2004. ATM and DNA-PK function redundantly to phosphorylate H2AX after exposure to ionizing radiation. Cancer Res. 64:2390–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sui, G., B. Affar el, Y. Shi, C. Brignone, N.R. Wall, P. Yin, M. Donohoe, M.P. Luke, D. Calvo, and S.R. Grossman. 2004. Yin Yang 1 is a negative regulator of p53. Cell. 117:859–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takai, H., K. Naka, Y. Okada, M. Watanabe, N. Harada, S. Saito, C.W. Anderson, E. Appella, M. Nakanishi, H. Suzuki, K. Nagashima, H. Sawa, K. Ikeda, and N. Motoyama. 2002. Chk2-deficient mice exhibit radioresistance and defective p53-mediated transcription. EMBO J. 21:5195–205.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takai, H., K. Tominaga, N. Motoyama, Y.A. Minamishima, H. Nagahama, T. Tsukiyama, K. Ikeda, K. Nakayama, and M. Nakanishi. 2000. Aberrant cell cycle checkpoint function and early embryonic death in Chk1(-/-) mice. Genes Dev. 14:1439–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tibbetts, R.S., K.M. Brumbaugh, J.M. Williams, J.N. Sarkaria, W.A. Cliby, S.Y. Shieh, Y. Taya, C. Prives, and R.T. Abraham. 1999. A role for ATR in the DNA damage-induced phosphorylation of p53. Genes Dev. 13:152–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trujillo, K.M., S.S. Yuan, E.Y. Lee, and P. Sung. 1998. Nuclease activities in a complex of human recombination and DNA repair factors Rad50, Mre11, and p95. J Biol Chem. 273:21447–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unsal-Kacmaz, K., and A. Sancar. 2004. Quaternary structure of ATR and effects of ATRIP and replication protein A on its DNA binding and kinase activities. Mol Cell Biol. 24:1292–300.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uziel, T., Y. Lerenthal, L. Moyal, Y. Andegeko, L. Mittelman, and Y. Shiloh. 2003. Requirement of the MRN complex for ATM activation by DNA damage. EMBO J. 22:5612–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vahteristo, P., J. Bartkova, H. Eerola, K. Syrjakoski, S. Ojala, O. Kilpivaara, A. Tamminen, J. Kononen, K. Aittomaki, P. Heikkila, K. Holli, C. Blomqvist, J. Bartek, O.P. Kallioniemi, and H. Nevanlinna. 2002. A CHEK2 genetic variant contributing to a substantial fraction of familial breast cancer. Am J Hum Genet. 71:432–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Vugt, M.A., V.A. Smits, R. Klompmaker, and R.H. Medema. 2001. Inhibition of Pololike kinase-1 by DNA damage occurs in an ATM-or ATR-dependent fashion. J Biol Chem. 276:41656–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vassilev, L.T., B.T. Vu, B. Graves, D. Carvajal, F. Podlaski, Z. Filipovic, N. Kong, U. Kammlott, C. Lukacs, C. Klein, N. Fotouhi, and E.A. Liu. 2004. In vivo activation of the p53 pathway by small-molecule antagonists of MDM2. Science. 303:844–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venclovas, C., and M.P. Thelen. 2000. Structure-based predictions of Rad1, Rad9, Hus1 and Rad17 participation in sliding clamp and clamp-loading complexes. Nucleic Acids Res. 28:2481–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Villunger, A., E.M. Michalak, L. Coultas, F. Mullauer, G. Bock, M.J. Ausserlechner, J.M. Adams, and A. Strasser. 2003. p53-and drug-induced apoptotic responses mediated by BH3-only proteins puma and noxa. Science. 302:1036–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogelstein, B., D. Lane, and A.J. Levine. 2000. Surfing the p53 network. Nature. 408:307–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vousden, K.H., and X. Lu. 2002. Live or let die: the cell’s response to p53. Nat Rev Cancer. 2:594–604.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walter, J., and J. Newport. 2000. Initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication: origin unwinding and sequential chromatin association of Cdc45, RPA, and DNA polymerase alpha. Mol Cell. 5:617–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, B., S. Matsuoka, P.B. Carpenter, and S.J. Elledge. 2002. 53BP1, a mediator of the DNA damage checkpoint. Science. 298:1435–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., D. Cortez, P. Yazdi, N. Neff, S.J. Elledge, and J. Qin. 2000. BASC, a super complex of BRCA1-associated proteins involved in the recognition and repair of aberrant DNA structures. Genes Dev. 14:927–39.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, I.M., K. Minn, K.G. Jorda, and J. Chen. 2003a. Accumulation of checkpoint protein 53BP1 at DNA breaks involves its binding to phosphorylated histone H2AX. J Biol Chem. 278:19579–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, I.M., K. Minn, J. van Deursen, and J. Chen. 2003b. p53 Binding protein 53BP1 is required for DNA damage responses and tumor suppression in mice. Mol Cell Biol. 23:2556–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, I.M., B. Reina-San-Martin, A. Olaru, K. Minn, K. Tamada, J.S. Lau, M. Cascalho, L. Chen, A. Nussenzweig, F. Livak, M.C. Nussenzweig, and J. Chen. 2004. 53BP1 is required for class switch recombination. J Cell Biol. 165:459–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, I.M., X. Wu, and J. Chen. 2001. Threonine 68 of Chk2 is phosphorylated at sites of DNA strand breaks. J Biol Chem. 276:47755–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R.S., S. Matsuoka, S.J. Elledge, and P. Leder. 2002. Hus1 acts upstream of chk1 in a mammalian DNA damage response pathway. Curr Biol. 12:73–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, X., and J. Chen. 2003. Autophosphorylation of checkpoint kinase 2 at serine 516 is required for radiation-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem. 278:36163–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, X., V. Ranganathan, D.S. Weisman, W.F. Heine, D.N. Ciccone, T.B. O’Neill, K.E. Crick, K.A. Pierce, W.S. Lane, G. Rathbun, D.M. Livingston, and D.T. Weaver. 2000. ATM phosphorylation of Nijmegen breakage syndrome protein is required in a DNA damage response. Nature. 405:477–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu-Baer, F., K. Lagrazon, W. Yuan, and R. Baer. 2003. The BRCA1/BARD1 heterodimer assembles polyubiquitin chains through an unconventional linkage involving lysine residue K6 of ubiquitin. J Biol Chem. 278:34743–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xia, Y., G.M. Pao, H.W. Chen, I.M. Verma, and T. Hunter. 2003. Enhancement of BRCA1 E3 ubiquitin ligase activity through direct interaction with the BARD1 protein. J Biol Chem. 278:5255–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xia, Z., J.C. Morales, W.G. Dunphy, and P.B. Carpenter. 2001. Negative cell cycle regulation and DNA damage-inducible phosphorylation of the BRCT protein 53BP1. J Biol Chem. 276:2708–18.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xiong, Y., G.J. Hannon, H. Zhang, D. Casso, R. Kobayashi, and D. Beach. 1993. p21 is a universal inhibitor of cyclin kinases. Nature. 366:701–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, B., S. Kim, and M.B. Kastan. 2001a. Involvement of Brca1 in S-phase and G(2)-phase checkpoints after ionizing irradiation. Mol Cell Biol. 21:3445–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, B., A.H. O’Donnell, S.T. Kim, and M.B. Kastan. 2002a. Phosphorylation of serine 1387 in Brca1 is specifically required for the Atm-mediated S-phase checkpoint after ionizing irradiation. Cancer Res. 62:4588–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., J. Lee, and D.F. Stern. 2004. Microcephalin is a DNA damage response protein involved in regulation of CHK1 and BRCA1. J Biol Chem. 279:34091–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., W. Qiao, S.P. Linke, L. Cao, W.M. Li, P.A. Furth, C.C. Harris, and C.X. Deng. 2001b. Genetic interactions between tumor suppressors Brca1 and p53 in apoptosis, cell cycle and tumorigenesis. Nat Genet. 28:266–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., and D.F. Stern. 2002. NFBD1/KIAA0170 is a chromatin-associated protein involved in DNA damage signalling pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 278:8795–8803.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., and D.F. Stern. 2003. NFBD1/MDC1 regulates ionizing radiation-induced focus formation by DNA checkpoint signalling and repair factors. Faseb J. 17:1842–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., L.M. Tsvetkov, and D.F. Stern. 2002b. Chk2 activation and phosphorylation-dependent oligomerization. Mol Cell Biol. 22:4419–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., K.U. Wagner, D. Larson, Z. Weaver, C. Li, T. Ried, L. Hennighausen, A. Wynshaw-Boris, and C.X. Deng. 1999. Conditional mutation of Brca1 in mammary epithelial cells results in blunted ductal morphogenesis and tumour formation. Nat Genet. 22:37–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Y., and D. Baltimore. 1996. Dual roles of ATM in the cellular response to radiation and in cell growth control. Genes Dev. 10:2401–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamane, K., J. Chen, and T.J. Kinsella. 2003. Both DNA topoisomerase II-binding protein 1 and BRCA1 regulate the G2-M cell cycle checkpoint. Cancer Res. 63:3049–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamane, K., M. Kawabata, and T. Tsuruo. 1997. A DNA-topoisomerase-II-binding protein with eight repeating regions similar to DNA-repair enzymes and to a cell-cycle regulator. Eur J Biochem. 250:794–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamane, K., X. Wu, and J. Chen. 2002. A DNA damage-regulated BRCT-containing protein, TopBP1, is required for cell survival. Mol Cell Biol. 22:555–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, S., C. Kuo, J.E. Bisi, and M.K. Kim. 2002. PML-dependent apoptosis after DNA damage is regulated by the checkpoint kinase hCds1/Chk2. Nat Cell Biol. 4:865–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yarden, R.I., S. Pardo-Reoyo, M. Sgagias, K.H. Cowan, and L.C. Brody. 2002. BRCA1 regulates the G2/M checkpoint by activating Chk1 kinase upon DNA damage. Nat Genet. 30:285–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yazdi, P.T., Y. Wang, S. Zhao, N. Patel, E.Y. Lee, and J. Qin. 2002. SMC1 is a downstream effector in the ATM/NBS1 branch of the human S-phase checkpoint. Genes Dev. 16:571–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo, H.Y., A. Kumagai, A. Shevchenko, and W.G. Dunphy. 2004. Adaptation of a DNA replication checkpoint response depends upon inactivation of Claspin by the Polo-like kinase. Cell. 117: 575–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • You, Z., L. Kong, and J. Newport. 2002. The role of single-stranded DNA and polymerase alpha in establishing the ATR, Hus1 DNA replication checkpoint. J Biol Chem. 277:27088–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, X., C.C. Chini, M. He, G. Mer, and J. Chen. 2003. The BRCT domain is a phospho-protein binding domain. Science. 302:639–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zacchi, P., M. Gostissa, T. Uchida, C. Salvagno, F. Avolio, S. Volinia, Z. Ronai, G. Blandino, C. Schneider, and G. Del Sal. 2002. The prolyl isomerase Pin1 reveals a mechanism to control p53 functions after genotoxic insults. Nature. 419:853–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, H., and H. Piwnica-Worms. 2001. ATR-mediated checkpoint pathways regulate phosphorylation and activation of human Chk1. Mol Cell Biol. 21:4129–39.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, H., J.L. Watkins, and H. Piwnica-Worms. 2002a. Disruption of the checkpoint kinase 1/cell division cycle 25A pathway abrogates ionizing radiation-induced S and G2 checkpoints. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 99:14795–800.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, S., W. Renthal, and E.Y. Lee. 2002b. Functional analysis of FHA and BRCT domains of NBS1 in chromatin association and DNA damage responses. Nucleic Acids Res. 30:4815–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, S., Y.C. Weng, S.S. Yuan, Y.T. Lin, H.C. Hsu, S.C. Lin, E. Gerbino, M.H. Song, M.Z. Zdzienicka, R.A. Gatti, J.W. Shay, Y. Ziv, Y. Shiloh, and E.Y. Lee. 2000. Functional link between ataxia-telangiectasia and Nijmegen breakage syndrome gene products. Nature. 405:473–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, H., H. You, X.Z. Zhou, S.A. Murray, T. Uchida, G. Wulf, L. Gu, X. Tang, K.P. Lu, and Z.X. Xiao. 2002. The prolyl isomerase Pin1 is a regulator of p53 in genotoxic response. Nature. 419:849–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, B.B., P. Chaturvedi, K. Spring, S.P. Scott, R.A. Johanson, R. Mishra, M.R. Mattern, J.D. Winkler, and K.K. Khanna. 2000. Caffeine abolishes the mammalian G(2)/M DNA damage checkpoint by inhibiting ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated kinase activity. J Biol Chem. 275:10342–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, B.B., and S.J. Elledge. 2000. The DNA damage response: putting checkpoints in perspective. Nature. 408:433–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zou, L., D. Cortez, and S.J. Elledge. 2002. Regulation of ATR substrate selection by Rad17-dependent loading of Rad9 complexes onto chromatin. Genes Dev. 16:198–208.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zou, L., and S.J. Elledge. 2003. Sensing DNA damage through ATRIP recognition of RPA-ssDNA complexes. Science. 300:1542–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2005 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lou, Z., Chen, J. (2005). Mammalian DNA Damage Response Pathway. In: Back, N., Cohen, I.R., Kritchevsky, D., Lajtha, A., Paoletti, R., Nigg, E.A. (eds) Genome Instability in Cancer Development. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 570. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3764-3_15

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics