Summary
This chapter raises the question whether synaptic connections in the cerebral cortex are adequate in accounting for higher cognition, especially cognition involving multimodal processing. A recent and novel approach to brain mechanics is outlined, one that involves microtubules and microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP2). In addition to effects on the neuronal membrane, neurotransmitters exert actions on microtubules. These neurotransmitter effects alter the MAP2 phosphorylation state and rates of microtubule polymerization and transport. It is argued that these processes are important to the physical basis of memory and consciousness. In support of this argument, MAP2 is degraded with learning in discrete cortical modules. How this relates to synaptic change related to learning is unknown. The specific proposal is advanced that learning alters microtubules in the subsynaptic zone lying beneath the synapse, and that this forms the physical basis of long-term memory storage because microtubule networks determine the synapse strength by directing contacts with actin filaments and transport of synaptic proteins. It is argued that this is more probable than memory-related physical storage in the synapse itself. Comparisons to consciousness are made and it is concluded that there is a link between microtubules, memory and consciousness.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ainsztein, A.M., Purich, D.L. (1994). J Biol Chem. 269(45):28465–71.
Al-Bassam, J., Ozer, R.S., Safer, D., Halpain, S., Milligan, R.A. (2002) J Cell Biol. 157(7):1187–96.
Alier, K.A., Morris, B.J. (2004). Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 122(1):10–6.
Amassian, V.E., Cracco, R.Q., Maccabee, P.J., Cracco, J.B., Rudell, A.P., Eberle, L. (1998). J Clin Neurophysiol. 15(4):288–304.
Antonova, I., Arancio, O., Trillat, A.C., Wang, H.G., Zablow, L., Udo, H., Kandel, E.R., Hawkins, RD. (2001). Science 294(5546):1547–50.
Audesirk, G., Cabell, L., Kern, M. (1997). Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 102(2):247–60.
Bell, JS. (1987). In: Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics. Cambridge University Press:14–21.
Bock, O., Abeele, S., Eversheim, U. (2003). Aviat Space Environ Med. 74(12):1256–62.
Braendgaard, H., Evans, S.M., Howard, C.V., Gundersen, HJ. (1990). J Microsc. 157:285–304.
Brodmann, K. (1909). Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues.
Brown, J.R., Stafford, P., Langford, GM. (2004). J Neurobiol. 58(2):175–88.
Brown, M.E., Bridgman, PC. (2004). J Neurobiol. 58(1):118–30.
Bruzzone, R., Hormuzdi, S.G., Barbe, M.T., Herb, A., Monyer, H. (2003). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100(23): 13644–9.
Buddle, M., Eberhardt, E., Ciminello, L.H., Levin, T., Wing, R., DiPasquale, K., Raley-Susman, KM. (2003). Brain Res. 978(1–2):38–50.
Buttner, B., Kannicht, C., Reutter, W., Horstkorte, R. (2003). Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 310(3):967–71.
Carlo, G.G., Benenti, G., Casati, G. (2003). Phys Rev Lett. 91(25):257903.
Carmena, J.M., Lebedev, M.A., Crist, R.E., O’Doherty, J.E., Santucci, D.M., Dimitrov, D., Patil, P.G., Henriquez, C.S., Nicolelis, MA. (2003). PLoS Biol. 1(2):E42
Castoldi, M., Popov, AV. (2003). Protein Expr Purif. 32(1): 83–8.
Chang, S., De Camilli, P. (2001). Nat Neurosci. 4(8):787–93.
Cohen, R.S., Kriho, V. (1991). J Neurocytol. 20(9):703–15.
Dehmelt, L., Halpain, S. (2004). J Neurobiol. 58(1):18–33.
Dehmelt, L., Smart, F.M., Ozer, R.S., Halpain, S. (2003). J Neurosci. 23(29): 9479–90.
Delon, J., Legendre, P. (1995). Neuroreport 6(14):1932–6.
Doubell, T.P., Stewart, MG. (1993). J Neurosci. 13(5):2230–6.
Edge, A.L., Marple-Horvat, D.E., Apps, R. (2003). Eur J Neurosci. 18(6): 1468–85.
Elston, GN. (2003). Cereb Cortex. 13(11):1124–38.
Falchier, A., Clavagnier, S., Barone, P., Kennedy, H. (2002). J Neurosci. 22(13):5749–59.
Fattal, D., Inoue, K., Vuckovic, J., Santori, C., Solomon, G.S., Yamamoto, Y. (2004). Phys Rev Lett. 92(3):037903.
Fischl, B., Dale, AM. (2000). Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA. 97(20): 11050–5.
Fu, K.M., Johnston, T.A., Shah, A.S., Arnold, L., Smiley, J., Hackett, T.A., Garraghty, P.E., Schroeder, CE. (2003). J Neurosci. 23(20):7510–5.
Fukazawa, Y., Saitoh, Y., Ozawa, F., Ohta, Y., Mizuno, K., Inokuchi, K. (2003). Neuron 38(3):447–60.
Ghosh, S., Rosenbaum, T.F., Aeppli, G., Coppersmith, SN. (2003). Nature 425(6953):48–51.
Gibbons, F., Chauwin, J.F., Desposito, M., Jose, JV. (2001). Biophys J. 80(6):2515–26.
Giepmans, B.N., Verlaan, I., Moolenaar, WH. (2001). Cell Commun Adhes. 8(4–6):219–23.
Gizewski, E.R., Gasser, T., de Greiff, A., Boehm, A., Forsting, M. (2003). Neuroimage 19(3):968–75.
Glickstein, M. (2000). Trends Neurosci. 23(12):613–7.
Grafman, J., Wassermann, E. (1999). Neuropsychologia 37(2):159–67.
Grau, E., Felipo, V., Minana, M.D., Grisolia, S. (1992). Neurochem Res. 17(10):967–71.
Greenough, W.T., Larson, J.R., Withers, GS. (1985). Behav Neural Biol. 44(2):301–14.
Griffith, L.M., Pollard, TD. (1982). J Biol Chem. 257(15):9143–51.
Grutzendler, J., Kasthuri, N., Gan, WB. (2002). Nature 420(6917):812–6.
Guillaud, L., Setou, M., Hirokawa, N. (2003). J Neurosci. 23(1):131–40.
Hagan, S., Hameroff, S.R., Tuszynski, JA. (2002). Phys Rev, E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. 65(6 Pt 1):061901.
Halpain, S., Hipolito, A., Saffer, L. (1998). J Neurosci. 18(23):9835–44.
Halpain, S. (2000). Trends Neurosci. 23(4):141–6.
Hameroff, S. (1998). Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A 356:1869–1896.
Hameroff, S.R., and Penrose, R. (1996b). J. Conscious. Stud. 3:36–53
Harada, A., Teng, J., Takei, Y., Oguchi, K., Hirokawa, N. (2002). J Cell Biol. 158(3):541–9.
Hasbani, M.J., Schlief, M.L., Fisher, D.A., Goldberg, MP. (2001). J Neurosci. 21(7):2393–403.
Hebb, DO. (1949). The Organization of Behavior. New York: John Wiley.
Hilgetag, C.C., Burns, G.A., O’Neill, M.A., Scannell, J.W., Young, MP. (2000). Philos Trans, R Soc Lond, B Biol Sci. 355(1393):91–110.
Hiller, G. and, K. Weber, (1978). Cell 14:795–804.
Hobson, J.A. (1994). The Chemistry of Conscious States: How the Brain Changes its Mind. Little, Brown.
Hobson, J.A., McCarley, R.W. (1977). Am, J Psychiatry. 134(12):1335–48.
Hobson, J.A., Pace-Schott, E.F. (2002). Nat Rev Neurosci. 3(9):679–93.
Homma, N., Takei, Y., Tanaka, Y., Nakata, T., Terada, S., Kikkawa, M., Noda, Y., Hirokawa, N. (2003). Cell 114(2):229–39.
Huang, X.P., Hampson, DR. (2000). J Neurochem. 74(1):104–13.
Huang, Y.S., Carson, J.H., Barbarese, E., Richter, JD. (2003). Genes Dev. 17(5):638–53.
Hunter, A., Stewart, MG. (1989). Exp Brain Res. 78(2):425–34.
Infante, A.S., Stein, M.S., Zhai, Y., Borisy, G.G., Gundersen, GG. (2000). J Cell Sci. 113 (Pt 22):3907–19.
Jasmin, B.J., Changeux, J.P., Cartaud, J. (1990). Nature 344(6267):673–5.
Kaech, S., Brinkhaus, H., Matus, A. (1999). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96(18):10433–7.
Kasai, H., Matsuzaki, M., Noguchi, J., Yasumatsu, N., Nakahara, H. (2003). Trends Neurosci. 26(7):360–8.
Khuchua, Z., Wozniak, D.F., Bardgett, M.E., Yue, Z., McDonald, M., Boero, J., Hartman, R.E., Sims, H., Strauss, AW. (2003). Neuroscience 119(1):101–11.
Kim, C.H., Lisman, JE. (1999). J Neurosci. 19(11):4314–24.
Kim, C.H., Lisman, JE. (2001). J Neurosci. 21(12):4188–94.
Klein, Gr. J., Xia Teng, P.T. Schoenemann and, T.F. Budinger. (1998). In Medical Imaging 98: Physiology and Function from Multidimensional Images, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, E Hoffman, (ed.), 3337.
Kotani, S., Nishida, E., Kumagai, H., Sakai, H. (1985). J Biol Chem. 260(19):10779–83.
Kreitzer, G., Liao, G., Gundersen, GG. (1999). Mol Biol Cell. 10(4):1105–18.
Kyuhou, S., Okada, YC. (1993). J Neurophysiol. 70(6):2665–8.
Ladrech, S., Lenoir, M., Ruel, J., Puel, JL. (2003). Hear Res. 186(1–2):85–90.
Lagercrantz, H., Ringstedt, T. (2001). Acta Paediatr. 90(7):707–15.
Lakin, W.D., Stevens, S.A., Tranmer, B.I., Penar, PL. (2003). J Math Biol. 46(4): 347–83.
Lendvai, B., Zelles, T., Rozsa, B., Vizi, ES. (2003). Brain Res Bull. 59(4):257–60.
Leuner, B., Falduto, J., Shors, TJ. (2003). J Neurosci. 23(2):659–65.
Lewis, J.W., Van Essen, DC. (2000). J Comp Neurol. 428(1):112–37.
Li, W., Gilbert, CD. (2002). J Neurophysiol. 88(5):2846–56.
Liu, X.B., Jones, EG. (2003). J Comp Neurol. 466(4): 457–67.
Malan, D., Gallo, M.P., Bedendi, I., Biasin, C., Levi, R.C., Alloatti, G. (2003). J Mol Cell Cardiol. 35(2):195–206.
Matsumoto, G., Ichikawa, M., Tasaki, A., Murofushi, H., Sakai, H. (1984). J Membr Biol. 77(2):77–91.
Matus, A. (1994). Trends Neurosci. 17(1):19–22.
Matus, A. (2000). Science 290(5492):754–8.
Mednikova, Y.S., Karnup, S.V., Loseva, EV. (1998). Neuroscience 87(4):783–96.
Miyamoto, Y., Muto, E., Mashimo, T., Iwane, A.H., Yoshiya, I., Yanagida, T. (2000). Biophys, J. 78(2):940–9.
Mok, H., Shin, H., Kim, S., Lee, J.R., Yoon, J., Kim, E. (2002). J Neurosci. 22(13):5253–8.
Moran, O., Tammaro, P., Nizzari, M., Conti, F. (2000). Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 275(3):839–44.
Mountcastle, VB. (2003). Cereb Cortex. 13(1):2–4.
Mountcastle, VB. (1997). Brain 120 (Pt 4):701–22.
Mouton, P.R., Price, D.L., Walker, LC. (1997). J Neurosci Methods 75(2):119–26.
Muresan, V. (2000). J Neurocytol. 29(11–12):799–818.
Naito, E., Sadato, N. (2003). Rev Neurosci. 14(4):387–99.
Olmsted, J.B., Borisy, GG. (1975). Biochemistry 14(13):2996–3005.
O’Malley, A., O’Connell, C., Murphy, K.J., Regan, CM. (2000). Neuroscience 99(2):229–32.
O’Malley, A., O’Connell, C., Regan, CM. (1998). Neuroscience 87(3):607–13.
Ostroff, L.E., Fiala, J.C., Allwardt, B., Harris, KM. (2002). Neuron 35(3):535–45.
Ozer, R.S., Halpain, S. (2000). Mol Biol Cell. 11(10):3573–87.
Pakkenberg, B., Gundersen, HJ. (1997). J Comp Neurol. 384(2):312–20.
Papaseit, C., Pochon, N., Tabony, J. (2000). Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA. 97(15):8364–8.
Parvizi, J., Damasio, AR. (2003). Brain 126 (Pt 7):1524–36.
Paus, T. (1999). Neuropsychologia 37(2):219–24.
Poluch, S., Drian, M.J., Durand, M., Astier, C., Benyamin, Y., Konig, N. (2001). J Neurosci Res. 63(1):35–44.
Portet, S., Tuszynski, J.A., Dixon, J.M., Sataric, MV. (2003). Phys Rev, E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. 68(2 Pt 1):021903.
Qualmann, B., Boeckers, T.M., Jeromin, M., Gundelfinger, E.D., Kessels, MM. (2004). J Neurosci. 24(10):2481–95.
Quinlan, E.M., Halpain, S. (1996). Neuron 16(2):357–68.
Roberts, L.A., Large, C.H., Higgins, M.J., Stone, T.W., O’Shaughnessy, C.T., Morris, BJ. (1998). Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 56(1–2):38–44.
Rockland, K.S., Ojima, H. (2003). Int, J Psychophysiol. 50(1–2): 19–26.
Saito, D.N., Okada, T., Morita, Y., Yonekura, Y., Sadato, N. (2003). Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 17(1):14–25.
Sanchez, C., Diaz-Nido, J., Avila, J. (2000). Prog Neurobiol. 61(2):133–68.
Sataric, M.V., Tuszynski, JA. (2003). Phys Rev, E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. 67(1 Pt 1):011901.
Schroeder, C.E., Foxe, JJ. (2002). Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 14(1):187–98.
Seitz, A., Kojima, H., Oiwa, K., Mandelkow, E.M., Song, Y.H., Mandelkow, E. (2002). EMBO J. 21(18):4896–905.
Shah, J.V., Flanagan, L.A., Janmey, P.A., Leterrier, JF. (2000). Mol Biol Cell. 11(10):3495–508.
Shcherbatko, A., Ono, F., Mandel, G., Brehm, P. (1999). Biophys J. 77(4):1945–59.
Shea, TB. (2000). J Neurocytol. 29(11–12):873–87.
Smart, F.M., Halpain, S. (2000). Hippocampus 10(5):542–54.
Spence, C. (2002). Behav Brain Res. 135(1–2):57–64.
Srinivasan, R., Russell, D.P., Edelman, G.M., Tononi, G. (1999). J Neurosci. 19(13):5435–48.
Star, E.N., Kwiatkowski, D.J., Murthy, VN. (2002). Nat Neurosci. 5(3):239–46.
Stepanova, T., Slemmer, J., Hoogenraad, C.C., Lansbergen, G., Dortland, B., De Zeeuw, C.I., Grosveld, F., van Cappellen, G., Akhmanova, A., Galjart, N. (2003). J Neurosci. 23(7):2655–64.
Steward, O., Schuman, EM. (2003). Neuron 40(2):347–59.
Stukenberg, PT. (2003). Curr Biol. 13(21):R848–50.
Sugaya, T., Kitani, Y., Saito, S., Uehara, K., Morita, T., Fujita, T. (1994). Masui 43(12):1812–7. (Japanese)
Tashiro, T., Komiya, Y., Kurachi, M., Kikumoto, M., Tashiro, H. (1997). J Neurosci Res. 50(1):81–93.
Taylor-Clarke, M., Kennett, S., Haggard, P. (2002). Curr Biol. 12(3):233–6.
Tegmark, M. (2000). Phys. Rev. E 61:4194–4206.
Temple, M.D., Kosik, K.S., Steward, O. S (2002). Neurobiol Learn Mem. 78(2):199–216.
Tuszynski, J.A., Trpisova, B., Sept, D., Brown, J.A. (1997). J Struct Biol. 118(2):94–106.
Unal, B., Bradley, P.M., Sahin, B., Canan, S., Aslan, H., Kaplan, S. (2002). Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 136(2):135–44.
Van der Zee, E.A., Luiten, P.G. (1999). Prog Neurobiol. 58(5):409–71.
Van der Zee, E.A., Douma, B.R., Bohus, B., Luiten, P.G. (1994). Cereb. Cortex 4(4):376–90.
Veral, V. (2003). Nature 425(6953):28–29.
Wagner, O., Zinke, J., Dancker, P., Grill, W., Bereiter-Hahn, J. (1999). Biophys J. 76(5):2784–96.
Walaas, S.I., Nairn, A.C. (1989). J Mol Neurosci. 1(2):117–27.
Wang, G.J., Jackson, J.G., Thayer, S.A. (2003). J Neurochem. 87(1):85–94.
Ward, L.M. (2003). Trends Cogn Sci. 7(12):553–559.
Werner-Reiss, U., Kelly, K.A., Trause, A.S., Underhill, A.M., Groh, J.M. (2003). Curr Biol. 13(7):554–62.
Westermann, S., Weber, K. (2003). Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 4(12):938–47.
Whatley, V.J., Harris, R.A. (1996). Int Rev Neurobiol. 39:113–43.
Wing, A.M. (2000). Curr Biol. 10(6):R245–8.
Withers, G.S., Greenough, W.T. (1989). Neuropsychologia 27(1):61–9.
Wolff, J., Sackett, D.L., Knipling, L. (1996). Protein Sci. 5(10):2020–8.
Wong, R.W., Setou, M., Teng, J., Takei, Y., Hirokawa, N. (2002). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99(22):14500–5.
Woolf, N.J., Hameroff, S.R. (2001). Trends Cogn Sci. 5(11):472–478.
Woolf, N.J., Young, S.L., Johnson, G.V., Fanselow, M.S. (1994). Neuroreport 5(9):1045–8.
Woolf, N.J., Zinnerman, M.D., Johnson, G.V. (1999). Brain Res. 821(1):241–9.
Woolf, N.J. (1998). Prog Neurobiol. 55(1):59–77.
Woolf, N.J. (1993). J Chem Neuroanat. 6(6):375–90.
Woolf, N.J. (1996). Neuroscience 74(3):625–51.
Wyszynski, M., Lin, J., Rao, A., Nigh, E., Beggs, A.H., Craig, A.M., Sheng, M. (1997). Nature 385(6615):439–42.
Yang, S.D., Song, J.S., Liu, H.W., Chan, W.H. (1993). J Protein Chem. 12(4):393–402. 75
Yuste, R., Bonhoeffer, T. (2001). Annu Rev Neurosci. 24:1071–89.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2006 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Woolf, N.J. (2006). Microtubules in the Cerebral Cortex: Role in Memory and Consciousness. In: Tuszynski, J.A. (eds) The Emerging Physics of Consciousness. The Frontiers Collection. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-36723-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-36723-3_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-23890-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-36723-9
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)