Skip to main content

Structural Interventions with an Emphasis on Poverty and Racism

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
African Americans and HIV/AIDS

Abstract

HIV/AIDS continues to disproportionately affect African Americans. While African Americans represent 13% of the U.S. population, they account for nearly 50% of new HIV/AIDS infections (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2008; McKinnon, 2003). Disproportionate rates are seen most among African American men who have sex with men (MSM) and women. Many African Americans at risk for acquiring HIV or other STIs disproportionately live in poverty and are plagued by communities with high rates of homelessness, unemployment, incarceration and substance abuse/dependence (Adimora & Schoenbach, 2005). How such factors increase the probability of exposure is very complex.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adimora, A. A., & Schoenbach, V. J. (2002). Contextual factors and the black-white disparity in heterosexual HIV transmission. Epidemiology, 13, 707–712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adimora, A. A., & Schoenbach, V. J. (2005). Social context, sexual networks, and racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted infections. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 191, S115–S122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adimora, A. A., Schoenbach, V. J., Martinson, F. E., Coyne-Beasley, T., Doherty, I., et al. (2006). Heterosexually transmitted HIV infection among African Americans in North Carolina. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 41, 616–623.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aidala, A., Cross, J. E., Stall, R., Harre, D., & Sumartojo, E. (2005). Housing status and HIV risk behaviors: Implications for prevention and policy. AIDS and Behavior, 9, 251–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albert, A. E., Warner, D. L., & Hatcher, R. A. (1998). Facilitating condom use with clients during commercial sex in Nevada’s legal brothels. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 643–646.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aral, S. O., Adimora, A., & Fenton, K. (2008). Understanding and responding to disparities in HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in African Americans. Lancet, 372, 337–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arrington-Sanders, R., Ellen, J., Trent, M. (2008). HIV testing in adolescents and young adults receiving STI testing in an urban primary care setting. Sex Transm Dis, 35, 686–688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arrington-Sanders, R., Ellen, J. (2009). Prevalence of self-reported human immunodeficiency virus testing among a population-based sample of urban African-American adolescents. J Adolesc Health, 43, 306–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashburn, K., Kerrigan, D., & Sweat, M. (2008). Micro-credit, women’s groups, control of own money: HIV-related negotiation among partnered Dominican women. AIDS and Behavior, 12, 396–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baicker, K., Chandra, A., & Skinner, J. S. (2005). Geographic variation in health care and the problem of measuring racial disparities. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 48, S42–S53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. E., Van Brunt, D. L., Raffanti, S. P., Long, W. J., & Jenkins, P. H. (2003). Improvements in access to care for HIV and AIDS in a statewide Medicaid managed care system. The American Journal of Managed Care, 9, 595–602.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, W., D’Angelo, L., Yamazaki, M., Belzer, M., Schroeder, S., et al. (2010). Identification of HIV-infected 12- to 24-year-old men and women in 15 US cities through venue-based testing. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 164, 273–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basu, I., Jana, S., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Swendeman, D., Lee, S. J., et al. (2004). HIV prevention among sex workers in India. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 36, 845–852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard, D., Kippax, S., & Baxter, D. (2008). Effective partnership and adequate investment underpin a successful response: Key factors in dealing with HIV increases. Sexual Health, 5, 193–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, R. L., & Arriola, K. R. (2003). Male prisoners and HIV prevention: A call for action ignored. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 759–763.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cason, C., Orrock, N., Schmitt, K., Tesoriero, J., Lazzarini, Z., & Sumartojo, E. (2002). The impact of laws on HIV and STD prevention. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30, 139–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005). HIV prevalence, unrecognized infection and HIV testing among men who have sex with men−five US cities, June 2004-April 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 54, 597–601.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). HIV prevalence estimates – United States, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 57, 1073–1076.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D. (1999). Cost as a barrier to condom use: The evidence for condom subsidies in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 567–568.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (2004). HIV/AIDS in India. Sonagachi sex workers stymie HIV. Science, 304, 560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D., Spear, S., Scibner, R., Kissinger, P., Mason, K., & Wildgen, J. (2000). “Broken windows” and the risk of gonorrhea. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 230–236.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crosby, R. A., Holtgrave, D. R., DiClemente, R. J., Wingwood, G. M., & Gayle, J. A. (2003). Social capital as a predictor of adolescents’ sexual risk behavior: A state-level exploratory study. AIDS and Behavior, 7, 245–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dasinger, L. K., & Speiglman, R. (2007). Homelessness prevention: The effect of a shallow rent subsidy program on housing outcomes among people with HIV or AIDS. AIDS and Behavior, 11, 128–139.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. C. (2000). Structural interventions to reduce HIV transmission among injection drug users. AIDS, 14, 46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, R. Y. (2004). Current safety of the blood supply in the United States. International Journal of Hematology, 80, 301–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doty, M. M., & Holmgren, A. L. (2006). Health care disconnect: Gaps in coverage and care for minority adults. Findings from the commonwealth fund biennial health insurance survey (2005). Issue Brief – Commonwealth Fund, 21, 1–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drucker, E., Lurie, P., Wodak, A., & Alcabes, P. (1998). Measuring harm reduction: The effects of needle and syringe exchange programs and methadone maintenance on the ecology of HIV. AIDS, 12, S217–S230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fehrs, L. J., Fleming, D., Foster, L. R., McAlister, R. O., Fox, V., et al. (1988). Trial of anonymous versus confidential human immunodeficiency virus testing. Lancet, 8607, 379–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fehrs, L. J., Foster, L. R., Fox, V., et al. (1988). Trial of anonymous versus confidential human immunodeficiency virus testing. Lancet, 332, 379–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fullilove, R.E., & National Minority AIDS Council. (2006). African Americans, health disparities and HIV/AIDS: Recommendations for confronting the epidemic in Black America: 2006 Fullilove report. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://www.nmac.org/index/cms-filesystem action?file=grpp/african%20americans,%20health%20disparities%20and%20hiv/aids.pdf

  • Giordano, P. C., Manning, W. D., & Longmore, M. A. (2005). The romantic relationships of African-American and white adolescents. The Sociological Quarterly, 46, 545–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorbach, P. M., Ryan, C., Saphonn, V., & Detels, R. (2002). The impact of social, economic and political forces on emerging HIV epidemics. AIDS, 16, 35–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groseclose, S. L., Weinstein, B., Jones, S. T., Valleroy, L. A., Fehrs, L. J., & Kassler, W. J. (1995). Impact of increased legal access to needles and syringes on practices of injecting-drug users and police officers- Connecticut, 1992–1993. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 10, 82–89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, G. R., Parkhurst, J. O., Ogden, J. A., Aggleton, P., & Mahal, A. (2008). Structural approaches to HIV prevention. Lancet, 372, 764–775.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guttmacher Institute. State policies in brief: Sex and STI/HIV education. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://www.guttmacher.org/statecenter/spibs/spib_SE.pdf

  • Harvey, P. D. (1994). The impact of condom prices on sales in social marketing programs. Studies in Family Planning, 25, 52–58.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heimberger, T. S., Chang, H. G., Birkhead, G. S., DiFerdinando, G. D., Greenberg, A. J., et al. (1993). High prevalence of syphilis detected through a jail screening program. A potential public health measure to address the syphilis epidemic. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 1799–1804.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hellard, M. E., & Aitken, C. K. (2004). HIV in prison: What are the risks and what can be done? Sexual Health, 1, 107–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holtgrave, D. R., Briddell, K., Little, E., Bendixen, A. V., Hooper, M., et al. (2007). Cost and threshold analysis of housing as an HIV prevention intervention. AIDS and Behavior, 11, S162–S166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huo, D., Bailey, S. L., Hershow, R. C., & Ouellet, L. (1998). Drug use and HIV risk practices of secondary and primary needle exchange users. AIDS Education and Prevention, 17, 170–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huo, D., & Ouellet, L. J. (2007). Needle exchange and injection-related risk behaviors in Chicago: A longitudinal study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 45, 108–114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huo, D., & Ouellet, L. J. (2009). Needle exchange and sexual risk behaviors among a cohort of injection drug users in Chicago, Illinois. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 36, 35–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jana, S., Basu, I., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., & Newman, P. A. (2004). The Sonagachi project: A sustainable community intervention program. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 405–414.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, J. G., Haile, B., Kates, J., & Chang, S. (2001). Health and federal budgetary effects of increasing access to antiretroviral medications for HIV by expanding Medicaid. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1464–1473.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, G. R., Zaunders, J. J., Cunningham, P., Kelleher, A. D., Grey, P., et al. (2000). Rapid restoration of CD4 T cell subsets in subjects receiving antiretroviral therapy during primary HIV-1 infection. AIDS, 14, 2643–2651.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerrigan, D., Moreno, L., Rosario, S., Gomez, B., Jerez, H., et al. (2006). Environmental-structural interventions to reduce HIV/STI risk among female sex workers in the Dominican Republic. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 120–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, M. R., Miller, W. C., Shoenbach, V. J., Weir, S. S., Kaufman, J. S., et al. (2008). Timing and duration of incarceration and high-risk sexual partnerships among African Americans in North Carolina. Annals of Epidemiology, 18, 403–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kidder, D. P., Wolitski, R. J., Campsmith, M. L., & Nakamura, G. V. (2007). Health status, health care use, medication use, and medication adherence among homeless and housed people living with HIV/AIDS. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 2238–2245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kidder, D. P., Wolitski, R. J., Royal, S., Aidala, A., Courtenay-Quirk, C., et al. (2007). Access to housing as a structural intervention for homeless and unstably housed people living with HIV: Rationale, methods, and implementation of the housing and health study. AIDS and Behavior, 11, 149–161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kippax, S., & Race, K. (2003). Sustaining safe practice: Twenty years on. Social Science & Medicine, 57, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, D. (1999). Sexuality education: It can reduce unprotected intercourse. SIECUS Report, 21, 19–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, D. B., Laris, B. A., & Rolleri, L. A. (2007). Sex and HIV education programs: Their impact on sexual behaviors of young people throughout the world. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 206–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. J., Candelas, A. R., Cooper, J. G., Badillo, W. E., Tesoriero, J. M., et al. (2008). Increasing safe syringe collection sites in New York State. Public Health Rep, 123, 433–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. J., Karachner, W. D., & O’Connell, D. A. (2002). Interventions to prevent HIV-related stigma and discrimination: Findings and recommendations for public health practice. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 8, 44–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. J., O’Connell, D. A., Devore, B. S., Wright, L. N., & Birkhead, G. S. (2002). Building an HIV Continuum for inmates: New York State’s criminal justice initiative. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14, 114–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, J. D., Sesselberg, T. S., Gawronski, B., Handerwerker, L., Gestern, F., & Schetine, A. (2003). Improving adolescent preventive services through state, managed care, and community partnerships. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 32, 91–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knowlton, A., Arnsten, J., Eldred, L., Wilkinson, J., Gourevitch, M., et al. (2006). Individual, interpersonal, and structural correlates of effective HAART use among urban active injection drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 41, 486–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koumans, E. H., Farley, T. A., Gibson, J. J., Langley, C., Ross, M. W., et al. (2001). Characteristics of persons with syphilis in areas of persisting syphilis in the United States: Sustained transmission associated with concurrent partnerships. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 28, 497–503.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krieger, N., Chen, J. T., Waterman, P. D., Rehkopf, D. H., & Subramanian, S. V. (2005). Painting a truer picture of U.S. socioeconomic and Racial/Ethnic health inequalities: The public health disparities geocoding project. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 312–323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Curry, A. D., Hua, W., & Davey, M. A. (2007). Direct and indirect associations of neighborhood disorder with drug use and high-risk sexual partners. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32, S234–S241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Williams, C. T., Wang, J., & Curry, A. D. (2005). Neighborhood social disorder as a determinant of drug injection behaviors: A structural equation modeling approach. Health Psychology, 24, 96–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, S. S., Butzin, C. A., & Inciardi, J. A. (1995). Assessment of a multistage therapeutic community for drug-involved offenders. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 27, 109–116.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, J. P., & Williams, E. L. (2002). Acceptability of condom availability in a U.S. jail. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14, 85–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCarty, D., LaPrade, J., & Botticelli, M. (1996). Substance abuse treatment and HIV services: Massachusetts’ policies and programs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 13, 429–438.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKinnon J. (2003). The black population in the United States: March 2002. In Washington: U.S. Census Bureau (Ed.) Current Population Reports, Series P20-541.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., & Steinberg, L. (1998). Studying minority adolescents: Conceptual, methodological, and theoretical issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mertz, K. J., Schwebke, J. R., Gaydos, C. A., Beidinger, H. A., Tulloch, S. D., & Levine, W. C. (2002). Screening women in jails for chlamydial and gonoccocal infection using urine tests: Feasibility, acceptability, prevalence, and treatment rates. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29, 271–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mofenson, L. M., & Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Public Health Service Task Force. (2002). U.S. public health service task force recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce Perinatal HIV-1 TRANSMISSION in the United States. MMWR: Recommendations and Reports, 51, 1–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molitor, F., Kuenneth, C., Waltermeyer, J., Mendoza, M., Aguirre, A., et al. (2005). Linking HIV-infected persons of color and injection drug users to HIV medical and other services: The California bridge project. AIDS Patient Care, 19, 406–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakashima, A. K., Horsley, R., Frey, R. L., Sweeney, P. A., Weber, J. T., & Fleming, P. L. (1998). Effect of HIV reporting by name on use of HIV testing in publicly funded counseling and testing programs. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1421–1426.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neaigus, A., Zhao, M., Gyarmathy, V. A., Cisek, L., Friedman, S. R., & Baxter, R. C. (2008). Journal of Urban Health, 85, 309–322.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholas, S. W., Jean-Louis, B., Oritz, B., Northridge, M., Shoemaker, K., et al. (2005). Addressing the childhood asthma crisis in Harlem: The Harlem children’s zone asthma initiative. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 245–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkhurst, J. O. (2001). The crisis of AIDS and the politics of response: The case of Uganda. International Relations, 15, 69–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potterat, J. J., Zimmerman-Rogers, H., Muth, S. Q., Rothenberg, R. B., Green, D. L., et al. (1999). Chlamydia transmission: Concurrency, reproduction number, and the epidemic trajectory. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150, 1331–1339.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pronyk, P. M., Kim, J. C., Abramsky, T., Phetla, G., Hargreaves, J. R., Morison, L. A., et al. (2008). A combined microfinance and training intervention can reduce HIV risk behaviour in young female participants. AIDS, 22, 1659–1665.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richie, B. E., Freudenberg, N., & Page, J. (2001). Reintegrating women leaving jail into urban communities: A description of a model program. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 290–303.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman, J., Rudnick, D., Slifer, M., Agins, B., Heiner, K., & Birkhead, G. (2007). Co-located substance use treatment and HIV prevention and primary care services, New York State, 1990–2002: A model for effective service delivery to a high-risk population. Journal of Urban Health, 84, 226–242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutherford, G. W., Woo, J. M., Neal, D. P., Rauch, K. J., Geoghegan, C., McKinney, K. C., et al. (1991). Partner notification and the control of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Two years of experience in San Francisco. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 18, 107–110.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schuler, S. R., & Hashemi, S. M. (1994). Credit programs, women’s empowerment, and contraceptive use in rural Bangladesh. Studies in Family Planning, 25, 65–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, S. G., German, D., Cheng, Y., Marks, M., & Bailey-Kloche, M. (2006). The evaluation of the JEWEL project: An innovative economic enhancement and HIV prevention intervention study targeting drug using women involved in prostitution. AIDS Care, 18, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stoneburner, R., & Low-Beer, D. (2004). Population-level HIV declines and behavioral risk avoidance in Uganda. Science, 302, 714–718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sumartojo, E. (2000). Structural and environmental factors in HIV prevention: Concepts, examples, and implications for research. AIDS, 14, S3–S10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sumartojo, E., Doll, L., Holtgrave, D., Gayle, H., & Merson, M. (2000). Enriching the mix: Incorporating structural factors in HIV prevention. AIDS, 14, S1–S2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sweat, M. D., & Denison, J. A. (1995). Reducing HIV incidence in developing countries with structural and environmental interventions. AIDS, 9, S251–S257.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swenson, R. R., Rizzo, C. J., Brown, L. K., Payne, N., DiClemente, R. J., et al. (2009). Prevalence and correlates of HIV testing among sexually active African American adolescents in 4 US cities. Sex Transm Dis, 36, 584–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Towe, V. L., Sifakis, F., Gindi, R. M., Sherman, S. G., Flynn, C., et al. (2010) Prevalence of HIV Infection and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Individuals Having Heterosexual Sex in Low Income Neighborhoods in Baltimore, MD: The BESURE Study. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 53, 522–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Demographic trends in jail populations. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance/tables/jailrairtab.htm

  • US Census Bureau. (2003). Poverty: 1999. Census 2000 Brief. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-19.pdf

  • Vlahov, D., & Junge, B. (1998). The role of needle exchange programs in HIV prevention. Public Health Reports, 113, S75–S80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, C. (1988). An open approach to AIDS. Africe Report, 33, 32–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, M. I., Xu, F., Patel, P., O’Cain, M., Schillinger, J. A., et al. (2001). An outbreak of syphilis in Alabama prisons: Correctional health policy and communicable disease control. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1220–1225.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolitski, R. J., Kidder, D. P., & Fenton, K. A. (2007). HIV, homelessness, and public health: Critical issues and a call for increased action. AIDS and Behavior, 11, S167–S171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woods, W. J. (2003). Public health policy and gay bathhouses. Journal of Homosexuality, 44, 1–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zenilman, J. M., Ellish, N., Fresia, A., & Glass, G. (1999). The geography of sexual partnerships in Baltimore: Applications of core theory dynamics using a geographic information system. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 26, 75–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Renata Arrington Sanders .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sanders, R.A., Ellen, J.M. (2010). Structural Interventions with an Emphasis on Poverty and Racism. In: McCree, D.H., Jones, K.T., O'Leary, A. (eds) African Americans and HIV/AIDS. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-78321-5_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-78321-5_14

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-78320-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-78321-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics