Abstract
Although the German — Soviet negotiations which led to the non-aggression pact of 23 August 1939 have been dealt with admirably in several accounts of the origins of the Second World War,2 there is still uncertainty about what Hitler primarily hoped to achieve. Was his first consideration to deter Britain and France from intervention on Poland’s behalf, or to threaten Poland from the east? Did he hope to use the non-aggression pact and subsequent treaty of 28 September in order to create conditions which would render it easier for Italy, whose power he greatly over-rated, to go to war? Did he consider plausible an alternative to a deal with Russia such as agreement with Britain? Could he sell the idea of a deal with Russia and war to his own people? No definite answer to these questions is possible until more is known about the military intelligence of the main participants.3 A short review of German mobilisation plans and operational intentions helps to clarify some of the issues.
The author first became interested in Russo — German relations for the period 1939–1941 when he worked on a monograph at the Cabinet Office Historical Section, Barbarossa: The Origins and Development of Hitler’s Plan to Attack Russia on 22 June 1941 (EDS Appreciation 5 1952). Work was continued in the original unpublished text of Hitler’s Pre-War Policy and Military Plans (London, 1955). This is considerably longer than the book with the same title (London, 1963). References to the original documents, used therein, are given below. Most of them can be found in xeroxes in the Imperial War Museum (IWM).
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Notes and References
C. Thorne, The Approach of War 1938–39 (London, 1967) and
W.J. Hofer, War Premeditated (London, 1954) remain of interest to the general reader.
So too are the articles in W.J. Mommsen and L. Kettenacker (eds). The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement (London, 1983), and in
R. Douglas (ed.), 1939, a Retrospect Forty Years After (London, 1983).
For an excellent survey of the literature on the origins of the war, see A. Adamthwaite, ‘War Origins Again’, in Journal of Modern History (March 1984). Among the earlier accounts of German — Soviet relations in 1939 those of P.W. Fabry, Der Hitler — Stalin — Pakt 1941 (Darmstadt 1962) and
G.L. Weinberg Germany and the Soviet Union 1939–1941 (Leyden, 1954 and 1971) have withstood the test of time. Weinberg has developed his ideas in, The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany, vol. II, Starting World War II, 1937–1939 (Chicago, 1980). This detailed and scholarly work is indispensable. For a succinct analysis of historical interpretations of the German — Soviet Pact,
see D.C. Watt, ‘The Initiation of Negotiations Leading to the Nazi — Soviet Pact: A Historical Problem’, in C. Abramsky (ed), Essays in Honour of E.H. Carr (Hamden Conn., 1974).
C. Andrew, Secret Service. The Making of the British Security Community (London 1985) has provided a stimulus to the study of military intelligence.
See also F.H. Hinsley British Intelligence in the Second World War. Its Influence on Strategy and Operations, vol. I (London 1979)
Documents on German Foreign Policy (series D) abbr. DGFP (D) VI, nos. 149, 185, and Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany, vol. II, p. 560. See also M. Messerschmidt, ‘Aussenpolitik und Kriegs-vorbereitung’, viertel Teil, in W. Deist et al (eds), Ursachen und Voraussetzungen der deutschen Kriegspolitik (Stuttgart, 1979), pp. 187–201.
E.M. Robertson, ‘Hitler’s Planning for War and the Response of the Great Powers’, in H.W. Koch (ed), Aspects of the Third Reich (London, 1985), pp. 196–234.
W. Kolarz, Religion and the Soviet Union (London, 1962), p. 113.
H.-G. Seraphim (ed), Das politische Tagebuch Alfred Rosenbergs (Munich, 1956), pp. 80–81 and 168–176, and
H. Groscurth, Tagebücher eines Abwehr-offiziers, 1938–1940 (eds.) H. Krausnick and H.C. Deutsch (Stuttgart, 1970), 15 March 1939, p. 171.
H. Booms, ‘Der Ursprung des Zweiten Weltkrieges — Revision oder Expansion?’, in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, vol. 16, no. 6 (June 1965). pp. 329–353.
J. Haslam, The Soviet Union and Struggle for Collective Security in Europe 1933–1939 (London, 1984), pp. 207, 209, 219, and J. Herman, ‘Soviet Peace Efforts on the Eve of World War II: A Review of Soviet Documents’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 15, no. 3.
S. Aster, 1939, The Making of the Second World War (London 1973), p. 128 et seq., and
A. Adamthwaite, France and the Coming of the Second World War (London, 1977), pp. 308, 316.
C.A. MacDonald, The United States, Britain and Appeasement (London 1981), ch. 10, and his, ‘Britain, France and the April Crisis of 1939’, in European Studies Review, no. 2 (London 1972).
B.A. Lee, Britain and the Sino — Japanese War, 1939–1939: A Study in the Dilemmas of British Decline (California 1973), ch. 7.
Haslam The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security, pp. 215–216, and A.B. Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–73, second edition (New York, 1974), p. 267 et seq.
The military confrontation between the Soviet Union and Japan at Nomonhan on the border between Outer Mongolia and Manchuria is described in A. Sella, ‘Khalk in-Gol: The Forgotten War’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 18, no. 4 (October 1983); J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command (London, 1962), p. 532 et seq., and
J. Haslam, ‘Soviet Aid to China and Japan’s Place in Moscow’s Foreign Policy 1937–1939’, Millennium Journal of International Studies, vol. 11 (1982), pp. 35–58.
He expressed this view in a conference with his military commanders of 23 May 1939 (see note 22). A.J.P. Taylor, without giving a reference, calls into question the authenticity of this document. He maintains that of the nine people said to be present eight were not, see Taylor, ‘The British View’, in Douglas, 1939, a Retrospect, p. 46. In fact 15 senior officers were present, M. Domarus (ed.), Hitler Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945 (Neustadt 1962), vol. II, pp. 1194–1199.
Hitler’s talk with his generals of 23 May (Note 22) and J. Dülffer, ‘Der Beginn des Krieges 1933–1939’, in K.D. Bracher et al (eds.) Nationalsozialistischer Diktatur. Eine Bilanz (Düsseldorf, 1980).
For a concise account of German plans for the invasion of Poland, see H. Rohde, ‘Hitlers erster Blitzkrieg und seine Auswirkung auf Nordost-europa’, in A. Maier et al (eds.), Die Errichtung der Hegemonie auf dem Europäischen Kontinent (Stuttgart, 1979), p. 92 et seq.
Also H. Roos, ‘Die militärpolitische Lage und Planung Polens gegenüber Deutschland vor 1939. Die Operation des Heeres’, in Wehrwissen-schaftliche Rundschau vol. 7 no. 1 (1957), pp. 193–202 and
N. von Vormann, Der Feldzug 1939 in Polen (Weissenbure, 1958), passim.
IWM, EDS, Box 113. AL 1448, ‘Absicht des ObdH und Aufträge’, nr 1750, 4200/39, 15 June 1939. See also W. Murray, The Change in the European Balance of Power: The Path to Ruin (Princeton, 1984), pp. 131–134.
The author is on the whole in agreement with J. Henke, England in Hitlers politischen Kalkül 1935–1939 (Boppard, 1973), pp. 242–245 and pp. 255–258, that until late in May Hitler’s enmity was turned mainly towards Britain rather than Poland.
Generaloberst Franz Halder, Kriegstagebuch, (ed.) H.-A. Jacobsen (Stuttgart, 1962), vol. I, 14 Aug. 1939, p. 7.
L. Hill (ed.), Die WeizsäckerPapiere, 1933–1950 (Frankfurt, 1974), 30 July, p. 157.
M. Knox, Mussolini Unleashed 1939–1941. Politics and Strategy in Italy’s Last War (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 39–43, and
R. Quatararo, Roma tra Londra e Berlino: La politica estera fascista dal 1930 al 1940 (Rome, 1980), p. 465, et seq.
N. Henderson, Failure of a Mission, Berlin 1937–1939 (London, 1940), p. 250.
Halder, Kriegstagebuch, 14 Aug. 1939, pp. 8–15. See also U. von Hassell, Vom Andern Deutschland (Frankfurt, 1964), 15 Aug. 1939, p. 66. For Chamberlain’s secret negotiations with B. Dahlerus, which Hitler was probably referring to on 14 Aug. 1939, see Aster, 1939, pp. 240–241 and Haslam, p. 227.
DGFP (D), VII nos. 56, 61, 62, 70. See also, R. Manne, ‘Some British Light on the Nazi — Soviet Pact’, European Studies Review, vol. XII, no. 1 (1981), p. 94–95, Ulam, pp. 274 et seq., and Herman, ‘Soviet Peace Efforts’
Halder, Kriegstagebuch, 14 Aug. 1939, pp. 10–11 and p. 14; and Hitler’s speech to his generals of 22 Aug. 1939 DGFP (D) nos. 192 and 193. See also Liebmann, Notes, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, vol. 16, no. 2 (April 1968).
For an account of Hitler’s fluctuating policy towards Britain, see D. Aigner, Das Ringen um England (Munich, 1969), p. 359 et seq.
A.J.P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945 (Oxford, 1965), p. 450.
Halder, Kriegstagebuch, p. 34; DGFP (D) VII, no. 271; Vormann, Der Feldzug 1939 in Polen, p. 44. For a detailed account of the times decisions were taken, see H. Greiner, Die Oberste Wehrmachtführung 1939–1943 (Weisbaden, 1951), p. 44 et seq; for signs of strain on the part of Hitler,
see Halder, Kriegstagebuch, 26 and 28 Aug. 1939, p. 34 and p. 38.
On captured Czech equipment, see Murray, The Change in the European Balance of Power, pp. 290–292, and W. Deist, The Wehrmacht and German Rearmament (London, 1981), pp. 88–89.
For General Beck’s view that war would result in the complete destruction of Germany, see H. Krausnick, ‘Ludwig Beck’, in R. Lill and H. Oberreuter (eds.), 20 Juli — Portraits des Widerstands (Düsseldorf — Vienna 1984), pp. 73–86.
See note 22 above. On Hitler’s readiness to take risks, see H.-A. Jacobsen, 1939–1945. Der Zweite Weltkrieg in Chronik und Dokumenten (Darmstadt, 1961), nos. 1, 3, 6, 7, and 16, and Robertson, Hitler’s Pre-War Policy, p. 134.
Halder, Kriegstagebuch, pp. 8–15 and p. 26; and DGFP (D) VII, nos. 192, 193 and Groscurth, Tagebüches, pp. 182 and 186. For French military intentions, see B. Bond, France and Belgium, 1939–1940 (London, 1974).
DBFP (3), VII, nos. 517 and 553 and ROOS, (note 29), pp. 200–202; see also Adamthwaite, France and the Coming of the Second World War, pp. 347–348, in which he quotes N. Bethell The War Hitler Won (London, 1972), p. 45.
DGFP (D) VII, nos. 307, 308 and 320 and E. von Rintelen, Mussolini als Bundesgenosse. Erinnerungen des deutschen Militärattaché in Rom 1936–1943 (Tübingen, 1951), pp. 68–74. See also Jodl’s Diary, 25 August 1939 and IWM, EDS, Box 113 GMDS H2/608, ‘Anlage zum Lagebericht West’, no. 9, 27/8/39.
See also Halder, Kriegstagebuch, 31 Aug. 1939, p. 48 and 1 Sept. 1939, p. 50 and DGFP (D) vol VII nos, 349, 423.
Ibid., p. 86. See also C.J. Burckhardt, Meine Danziger Mission (Munich, 1960), p. 348, in which Hitler discussed an eventual war with Russia.
E.L. Homze, Arming the Luftwaffe: The Reich Air Ministry and the German Aircraft Industry (Nebraska, 1976), and
G.L. Weinberg, ‘Hitler and England 1933–1945: Pretence and Reality’, German Studies Review, vol. VII, no. 2 (May 1985), pp. 299–309.
See The Diplomatic Papers of Oliver Harvey 1937–1940 (ed.), O. Harvey (London, 1970), pp. 217–220.
Weizsäcker Papiere, 30 July 1939, p. 157. For the role of the SS see R. Runsheimer, ‘Die Grenzzwischenfälle am Abend vor dem deutschen Angriff auf Polen’, in Sommer 1939: Die Grossmachte und der Europaische Krieg, (eds.) J. Benz and H. Graml (Stuttgart, 1979).
See B. Wegner, ‘The Aristocracy of National Socialism: The Role of the SS in National Socialist Germany’, in Aspects, pp. 439–440. For Rosenberg’s attitude to the Russo — German Pact, see Seraphim (ed.), Das Politische Tagebuch Alfred Rosenbergs, p. 93. Dissatisfaction on the part of the SS is also described in C.A. MacDonald, ‘The Venlo Affair’, European Studies Review vol. 8 (1978), pp. 443–464.
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© 1989 Esmonde M. Robertson
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Robertson, E.M. (1989). German Mobilisation Preparations and the Treaties Between Germany and the Soviet Union of August and September 1939. In: Boyce, R., Robertson, E.M. (eds) Paths to War. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20333-8_11
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