Abstract
Designing a system requires both creativity and rationalization. These two processes are antagonist. The former is about divergent thinking (i.e., generation of ideas and brainstorming processes when it is done by a group of people). The later is about convergent thinking (i.e., analysis of ideas and synthesis into concepts, evaluation and prioritization of concepts). Generating concepts requires formalizing them in order to share them, and this is where modeling enters into play. We need to have the right conceptual tools in order to share ideas and concepts. This chapter introduces a few of these conceptual tools such as models.
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Notes
- 1.
As a reminder, a task is a prescription and an activity is the effective realization of this prescription.
- 2.
DGAC is the French Civil Aviation Administration.
- 3.
Note that fluid dynamics involve huge number of molecules, considered as agents. It has been modeled for a long time using partial differential equations that for example, take into account parabolic (diffusive behavior) and hyperbolic (convective behavior) factors. Simulation of these equations leads to discovery of emerging phenomena such as shock waves. A flock of birds is another example where very simple local mechanisms such as separation, alignment and cohesion enable the generation of emerging behaviors that look like what you can see when you watch a real flock of birds (http://www.red3d.com/cwr/boids).
- 4.
Flight EA401 departed New York-JFK at 21:20 EST for a flight to Miami. The flight was uneventful until the approach to Miami. After selecting gear down, the nose-gear light didn’t indicate ‘down and locked’. Even after recycling the gear, the light still didn’t illuminate. At 23:34 the crew called Miami Tower and were advised to climb to 2000 feet and hold. At 23:37 the captain instructed the second officer to enter the forward electronics bay, below the flight deck, to check visually the alignment of the nose gear indices. Meanwhile, the flight crew continued their attempts to free the nose-gear position light lens from its retainer, without success. The second officer was directed to descend into the electronics bay again at 23:38 and the captain and first officer continued discussing the gear position light lens assembly and how it might have been reinserted incorrectly. At 23:40:38 a half-second C-chord sounded in the cockpit, indicating a +/− 250 feet deviation from the selected altitude. None of the crewmembers commented on the warning and no action was taken. A little later the Eastern Airlines maintenance specialist, occupying the forward observer seat went into the electronics bay to assist the second officer with the operation of the nose wheel well light. At 23:41:40 Miami approach contacted the flight and granted the crew’s request to turn around by clearing him for a left turn heading 180°. At 23:42:05 the first officer suddenly realized that the altitude had dropped. Just seven seconds afterwards, while in a left bank of 28°, the TriStar’s no. 1 engine struck the ground, followed by the left main gear. The aircraft disintegrated, scattering wreckage over an area of flat marshland, covering a 1,600 feet × 300 feet area. Probable cause: “The failure of the fight crew to monitor the flight instruments during the final 4 min of flight, and to detect an unexpected descent soon enough to prevent impact with the ground. Preoccupation with a malfunction of the nose landing gear position indicating system distracted the crew’s attention from the instruments and allowed the descent to go unnoticed.” (Excerpt from the narrative included on the Flight Safety Foundation Website). http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id = 19721229-0).
- 5.
I realize the term “concept” can be confusing when we address both architecture and cognitive science communities. In architecture, a concept denotes the first drawings of a design. In cognitive science, a concept denotes something conceived in the mind, an abstraction, which is represented as a “term”.
- 6.
CATIA history by Francis Bernard (http://www.edstechnologies.com/download/history-catia.pdf).
- 7.
http://www.noaa.gov/eos.html.
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Boy, G. (2013). Modeling and Simulation. In: Orchestrating Human-Centered Design. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4339-0_7
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