Skip to main content

Cognitive, Neural, and Behavioral Effects of Low-Level Lead Exposure

  • Chapter
The Vulnerable Brain and Environmental Risks

Abstract

Lead toxicity has been recognized since antiquity, and warnings about its neurotoxic properties have been issued throughout history. Recent advances in the neurotoxicology and epidemiology of lead exposure have drawn a clear picture of the extent and nature of the disease. It is now acknowledged that the consequences of exposure to lead constitute the most serious environmental problem of American children. It is also clear that this disease is totally preventable.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1988, The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Children in the United States: A Report to Congress. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barltrop, D., 1982, Nutritional and maturational factors modifying the absorption of inorganic lead from the gastrointestinal tract, in: Environmental Factors in Human Growth and Development (V.R. Hunt, M.K. Smith, and D. Worth, eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, pp. 35–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barltrop, D., and Khoo, H.E., 1975, The influence of nutritional factors on lead absorption, Postgrad. Med. J. 51:795–800.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, J., and Livesey, P.J., 1983, Lead induced alterations in maternal behavior and offspring development in the rat, Neurobehay. Toxicol. Teratol. 5:557–563.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barton, J.C., and Conrad, M.E., 1981, Effect of phosphate on the absorption and retention of lead in the rat, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:2192–2198.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barton, J.C., Conrad, M.E., Harrison, L., and Nuby, S., 1978a, Effects of calcium on the absorption and retention of lead, J. Lab. Clin. Med. 91:366–376.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barton, J.C., Conrad, M.E., Harrison, L., and Nuby, S., 1978b, Effects of iron on the absorption and retention of lead, J. Lab. Clin. Med. 92:536–547.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barton, J.C., Conrad, M.E., Harrison, L., and Nuby, S., 1980, Effects of vitamin D on the absorption and retention of lead, Am. J. Physiol. 238:G124—G130.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bellinger, D., and Needleman, H.G., 1992, Lead, in: Prenatal Exposure to Environmental Toxicants: Developmental Consequences (H.L. Needleman, and D. Bellinger, eds.), Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., Waternaux, C., Needleman, H., and Rabinowitz, M., 1987, Longitudinal analyses of pre-and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development, N. Engl. J. Med. 316:1037–1043.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., and Sloman, J., 1990, Antecedents and correlates of improved cognitive performance in children exposed in utero to low levels of lead, Environ. Health Perspect. 89:5–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellinger, D., Sloman, J., Leviton, A., Rabinowitz, M., Needleman, H., and Waternaux, C., 1991a, Low level lead exposure and children’s cognitive function in the preschool years, Pediatrics 87:219–227.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., Rabinowitz, M., Allred, E., Needleman, H., and Schoenbaum, S., 1991b, Weight gain and maturity in fetuses exposed to low levels of lead, Environ. Res. 54:151–158.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, L.R., Nordstrom, J.O., and Ousterhout, L.E., 1980, The prevention of chick growth depression due to dietary lead by increased dietary calcium and phosphorus levels, Poult. Sci. 59:1860–1863.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergomi, M., Borella, P., Fantuzzi, G., Vivoli, G., Sturloni, N., Cavazzuti, G., Tampieri, A., and Tartoni, P.L., 1989, Relationship between lead exposure indicators and neuropsychological performance in children, Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 31:181–190.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bornschein, R.L., Grote, J., Mitchell, T., Succop, P., Dietrich, K.M., Krafft, K., and Hammond, P., 1989, Effects of prenataland postnatal lead exposure on fetal maturation and postnatal growth, in: Lead Exposure and Child Development: AnInternational Assessment (M. Smith, L. Grant, and A. Sors, eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 307–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R.S., Hingerty, B.E., Dewan, J.C., and Klug, A., 1983, Pb(II)-catalysed cleavage of the sugar phosphatebackbone ofyeast tRNA(Phe)—implications for lead toxicity and self-splicing RNA, Nature 303:543–546.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, R.J., Lutkenhoff, S.D., McCarty, G.E., and Miller, R.G., 1979, Delays in the postnatal increase of cerebral cytochrome concentrations in lead-exposed rats, Neuropharmacology 18:83–92.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bushnell, P.J., and Levin, E.D., 1983, Effects of zinc deficiency on lead toxicity in rats, Neurobehay. Toxicol. Teratol. 5:283–288.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byers, R.K., and Lord, E.E., 1943, Late effects of lead poisoning on mental development, Am. J. Dis. Child. 66:471–483.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerklewski, F.L., 1979, Influence of dietary zinc on lead toxicity during gestation and lactation in the female rat, J. Nutr. 109:1703–1709.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerklewski, F.L., 1980, Reduction in neonatal lead exposure by supplemental dietary iron during gestation and lactation in the rat, J. Nutr. 110:1453–1457.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerklewski, F.L., and Forbes, R.M., 1976, Influence of dietary zinc on lead toxicity in the rat, J. Nutr. 106:689–696.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chisolm, J.J., Jr., 1981, Dose-effect relationships for lead in young children: Evidence in children for interactions among lead, zinc, and iron, in: Environmental Lead: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Environmental Lead Research, December, 1978,Cincinnati, OH (D.R. Lynam, L.G. Piantanida, and J.F. Cole, eds.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, A., Mushak, P., and Schwartz, J., 1990, Determination of numbers of lead-exposed women of child-bearing age and pregnant women: An integrated summary of a report to the U.S. Congress on childhood lead poisoning, Environ. Health Perspect. 89:121–124.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J.M., and Svendsgaard, D.J., 1987, Lead and child development, Nature 329:287–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, K., Krafft, K., Shukla, R., Bornschein, R., and Succop, P., 1986, The neurobehavioral effects of prenatal and early postnatal lead exposure, in: Toxic Substances and Mental Retardation: Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology (S. Schroeder, ed.), American Association on Mental Deficiency, Washington, D.C., pp. 71–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, K., Krafft, K., Bornschein, R., Hammond, P., Berger, O., Succop, P., and Bier, M., 1987, Low-level fetal lead exposure effect on neurobehavioral development in early infancy, Pediatrics 80:721–730.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, K., Succop, P., Berger, O., Hammond, P., and Bornschein, R., 1991, Lead exposure and the cognitive development ofurban preschool children: The Cincinnati Lead Study cohort at age 4 years, Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 13:203–211.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dobbins, A., Johnson, D.R., and Nathan, P., 1978, Effect of exposure to lead on maturation of intestinal iron absorption of rats,J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 4:541–550.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El-Gazzar, R.M., Finelli, V.N., Boiano, J., and Petering, H.G., 1978, Influence of dietary zinc on lead toxicity in rats, Toxicol. Lett. 1:226–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emhart, C., Wolf, A., Brittenham, G., and Erhard, P., 1985, Fetal lead exposure: Antenatal factors, Environ. Res. 38:54–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emhart, C., Wolf, A., Kennard, M., Erhard, P., Filipovich, H., and Sokol, R., 1986, Intrauterine exposure to low levels of lead: The status of the neonate, Arch. Environ. Health 41:287–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emhart, C., Morrow-Tlucak, M., Marler, M., and Wolf, A., 1987, Low level lead exposure in prenatal and early preschool periods: Early preschool development, Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 9:259–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emhart, C., Morrow-Tlucak, M., Wolf, A., Super, D., and Drotar, D., 1989, Low level lead exposure in the prenatal and early preschool periods: Intelligence prior to school entry, Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 11:161–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D.M., Fergusson, J.E., Horwood, L.J., and Kinzett, N.G., 1988, A longitudinal study of dentine lead levels, intelligence, school performance and behaviour: Part III: Dentine lead levels and attention/activity, J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 29(6):811–824.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, P.R., Hamilton, D.L., Haist, J., and Valnerg, L.S., 1979, Inter-relationships between iron and absorption in iron-deficient mice, Gastroenterology 77:1074–1080.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fulton, M., Raab, G., Thomson, G., Laxen, D., Hunter, R., and Hepburn, W., 1987, Influence of blood lead on the ability and attainment of children in Edinburgh, Lancet 1:1221–1226.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, J.L., 1904, A plea for painted railings and painted walls of rooms as the source of lead poisoning among Queensland children, Austr. Med. Gaz. 23:149–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, S.G., and Rice, D.C., 1987, Low-level lifetime lead exposure produced behavioral toxicity (spatial discrimination reversal) in adult monkeys, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 91:484–490.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilfillan, S.C., 1965, Lead poisoning and the fall of Rome, J. Occup. Med. 7:53–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, G., 1992, Developmental neurobiology of lead toxicity, in: Human Lead Exposure (H.L. Needleman, ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goyer, R.A., 1990, Transplacental transport of lead, Environ. Health Perspect. 89:101–105.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gradient Corporation, 1990, The Relationship Between Blood Lead and Cognitive Development Scores: Evidence from Prospective Epidemiological Studies, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, J., Popovac, D., Factor-Litvak, P., Shrout, P., Kline, J., Murphy, M., Zhao, Y., Mehmeti, A., Ahmedi, X., Rajovic, B., Zvicer, Z., Nenezic, D., Lolacono, N., and Stein, Z., 1990, Determinants of elevated blood lead during pregancy in a population surrounding a lead smelter in Kosovo, Yugoslavia, Environ. Health Perspect. 89:95–100.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hambidge, K.M., 1977, The role of zinc and other trace metals in pediatric nutrition and health, Pediatr. Clin. North Am.24:95–106.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, O.N., Trillingsgaard, A., Beese, I., Lyngye, T., and Grandjean, P., 1989, A neuropsychological study of children with elevated dentine lead level: Assessment of the effect of lead in different socio-economic groups, Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 11:205–213.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, M.H., and Smith, J.L., 1981, Effect of vitamin D and low dietary calcium on lead uptake and retention in rats, J. Nutr. 111:694–698.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hasan, J., Vihko, V., and Hemberg, S., 1967, Deficient red cell membrane /Na+ +K+/ATPase in lead poisoning, Arch. Environ. Health 14:313–318.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzakis, A., Kokkevi, A., Katsouyanni, K., Maravelias, K., Salaminios, F., Kalandidi, A., Koutselinis, A., Stefanis, K., and Trichopoulos, D., 1987, Psychometric intelligence and attentional performance deficits in lead-exposed children, in: Heavy Metals in the Environment: International Conference, New Orleans (S.E. Lindberg and T.C. Hutchinson, eds.), CEP Consultants, Edinburgh, pp. 204–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hays, S., (1992), The role of values in science and policy: The case of lead, in: Human Lead Exposure (H.L. Needleman, ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hemberg, S., 1973, Biological effects of low lead doses, in: Proc. International Symposium: Environmental Health Aspects of Lead. Amsterdam. The Netherlands, 1972 (D. Barth, A. Berlin, R. Engel, P. Recht, and J. Smeets, eds.), Commission of the European Communities, Centre for Information and Documentation, Luxembourg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtzman, D., Hsu, J.S., and Morten, P., 1978, The pathogenesis of lead encephalopathy in the rat pup: Effects of maternal PbCO3 feedings from birth, Ped. Res. 12:1077–1082.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, F.S., Krook, L., Pond., W.G., and Duncan, J.R., 1975, Interactions of dietary calcium with toxic levels of lead and zinc in pigs. J. Nutr. 105:112–118.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hume, D., 1894, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,Claredon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, N.E., and Tenuta, K., 1979, Diets and lead blood levels of children who practice pica, Environ. Res. 18:369–376.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D.A., 1979, Correlation and Causality, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitchen, I., McDowell, J., Winder, C., and Wilson, J.M., 1984, Low-level lead exposure alters morphine antinociception in neonatal rats, Toxicol. Lett. 22:119–123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klauder, D.S., and Petering, H.G., 1975, Protective value of dietary copper and iron against some toxic effects of lead in rats, Environ. Health Perspect. 12:77–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klauder, D.S., and Petering, H.G., 1977, Anemia of lead intoxication: A role for copper, J. Nutr. 107:1779–1785.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klauder, D.S., Murthy, L., and Petering, H.G., 1973, Effect of dietary intake of lead acetate on copper metabolism in male rats, in: Trace Substances in Environmental Health VI: Proc. of University of Missouri’s 6th Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Environmental Health; June, 1972; Columbia, MO (D.D. Hemphill, ed.), University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, pp. 131–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lansdown, R., Yule, W., Urbanowicz, M., and Miller, I., 1983, Blood lead, intelligence, attainment and behavior in school children: Overview of a pilot study in: Lead versus Health (M. Rutter, and R.R. Jones eds.), John Wiley, London, pp. 267–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin-Fu, J.S., 1985, Historical perspective on health effects of lead, in: Dietary and Environmental Lead.: Human Health Effects (K. Mahaffey, ed.), Elsevier Science, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, D., Stottin, H., and Duner, A., 1983, Aggression and criminality in a longitudinal perspective, in: Antecedents of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior (K.T. Van Dusen, and S.A. Mednick, eds.), Kluwer-Nijhoff, Boston, pp. 277–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey, K.R., 1990, Environmental lead toxicity: Nutrition as a component of intervention, Environ. Health Perspect. 89:75–78

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey, K.R., and Michaelson, I.A., 1980, The interaction between lead and nutrition, in: Low Level Lead Exposure: TheClinical Implications of Current Research (H.L. Needleman, ed.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 159–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey, K.R., Goyer, R., and Haseman, J.K., 1973, Dose-response to lead ingestion in rats fed low dietary calcium, J. Lab.Clin. Med. 82:92–100.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey, K.R., Treloar, S., Banks, T.A., Peacock, B.J., and Parekh, L.E., 1976, Differences in dietary intake of calcium, phosphorus and iron of children having normal and elevated blood lead concentrations, J. Nutr. (Abstr.) 106(7):xxx.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey, K.R., Annest, J., Roberts, J., and Murphy, R., 1982, National estimates of blood lead levels: United States, 1976–1980: Association with selected demographic and socioeconomic factors, in N. Engl. J. Med. 307:573–579.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey-Six, K., and Goyer, R.A., 1972, The influence of iron deficiency on tissue content and toxicity of ingested lead in the rat, J. Lab. Clin. Med. 79:128–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markovac, J., and Goldstein, G.W., 1988, Picomolar concentrations of lead stimulate brain protein kinase C. Nature 334:7173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markowitz, M.E., and Rosen, J.F., 1981, Zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) metabolism in CaNa2 EDTA-treated children with plumbism, Pediatr. Res. 15:635.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMichael, A., Baghurst, P., Robertson, E., Vimpani, G., and Wigg, N., 1985, The Port Pirie Cohort Study: Blood lead concentrations in early childhood, Med. J. Austr. 143:499–503.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMichael, A., Vimpani, G., Robertson, E., Baghurst, P., and Clark, P., 1986, The Port Pirie Cohort Study: Maternal blood lead and pregnancy outcome, J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 40:18–25.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMichael, A., Baghurst, P., Wigg, N., Vimpani, G., Robertson, E., and Roberts, R., 1988, The Port Pirie Cohort Study: Environmental exposure to lead and children’s abilities at the age of four years, N. Engl. J. Med. 319:468–475.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mielke, H.W., Blake, B., Burroughs, S., and Hassinger, N., 1983, Lead concentrations in inner-city soils as a factor in the childlead problem, Am. J. Public Health 73:1366–1369.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T.E., 1990, Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: Boys’ developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15, Child Dev. 61:893–910.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, J.N., Quarterman, J., and Humphries, W.R., 1977, The effect of dietary calcium and phosphate on lead poisoning in lambs, J. Comp. Pathol. 87:417–429.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mushak, P., 1991, Defining lead as a critical environmental health issue: Criteria and their quantitative application, Proceedings of 12th Annual Uosherc Symposium, “Getting the Lead Out: Priorities for the 1990s,” Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nathanson, J.A., and Bloom, F.E., 1975, Lead-induced inhibition of brain adenyl cyclase, Nature 255:419–420.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, J.R., Baker, D.M., Taylor, B., and Clark, D.E., 1986, Dietary lead increases ethanol consumption in the rat, Behay.Neurosci. 100:525–530.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L., and Bellinger, D., 1988, Commentary: Recent developments, Environ. Res. 46:190–191.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L., and Bellinger, D., 1991, The health effects of low level exposure to lead, Annu. Rev. Public Health 12:111–140.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L., and Gatsonis, C.A., 1990, Low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children: A meta-analysis of modem studies, JAMA 263:673–678.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L., Gunnoe, C., Leviton, A., Reed, R., and Peresit, H., 1979, Deficits in psychological and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels, N. Engl. J. Med. 300:689–95.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L., Rabinowitz, M., Leviton, A., Linn, S., and Schoenbaum, S., 1984, The relationship between prenatal exposure to lead and congenital anomalies, JAMA 25:2956–2959.

    Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L., Schell, A., Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., and Allred, E.N., 1990, The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood: An 11-year follow-up report, N. Engl. J. Med. 322:83–88.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, T., 1911, Lead poisoning and the race, Br. Med. J. 1:1096–1098.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, G., and Lippman, G., 1977, Nutritional status of infants and young children: U.S.A., Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 24:211–227.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pomeroy, J.C., Sprafkin, J., and Gadow, K.D., 1988, Minor physical anomalies as a biologic marker for behavior disorders, J. Am. Acad. Child Adoles. Psycho!. 27:466–473.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quarterman, J., and Morrison, J.N., 1975, The effects of dietary calcium and phosphorus on the retention and excretion of lead in rats, Br. J. Nutr. 34:351–362.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raab, G.M., Laxen, D.P.H., and Fulton, M., 1987, Lead from dust and water as exposure sources for children, Environ. Geochem. Health 9:80–85.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raab, G.M., Thomson, G.O.B., Boyd, L., Fulton, M., and Lazen, D.P.H., 1990, Blood lead levels, reaction time, inspection time and ability in Edinburgh children, Br. J. Dev. Psycho!. 8:101–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, J.F., Chesney, R.W., Hamstra, A.J., DeLuca, H.F., and Mahaffey, K.R., 1980, Reduction in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in children with increased lead absorption, N. Engl. J. Med. 302:1128–1131.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, J.F., Chesney, R.W., Hamstra, A.J., DeLuca, H.F., and Mahaffey, K.R., 1981, Reduction in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in children with increased lead absorption, in: Organ-Directed Toxicity: Chemical Indices and Mechanisms (S.S. Brown, and D.S. Davis, eds.), Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 91–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Routh, D., Mushak, P., and Boone, L., 1979, A new syndrome of elevated blood lead and microenphaly, J. Pediatr. Psychol. 4:67–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaheen, S., 1984, Neuromaturation and behavior development: The case of childhood lead poisoning, Develop. Psychol. 20:542–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shukla, R., Bomschein, R., Dietrich, K., Buncher, C., Berger, O., Hammond, P., and Succop, P., 1989, Fetal and infant lead exposure: Effects on growth in stature, Pediatrics 84:604–612.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silbergeld, E., 1983, Effects of lead on reproduction: Review of experimental studies, in: Lead Versus Health (M. Rutter, and R.R. Jones, eds.), John Wiley, London, pp. 217–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silbergeld, E., 1986, Maternally-mediated exposure of the fetus: In utero exposure to lead and other toxins, Neurotoxicology 7:557–568.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silbergeld, E., Schwartz, J., and Mahaffey, K., 1988, Lead and osteoporosis: Mobilization of lead from bone in postmenopausal women, Environ. Res. 47:79–94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sills, M.R., Mahaffey, K.R., and Silbergeld, E.K., 1991, Letter to the editor, N. Engl. J. Med., 324:416–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva, P.A., Hughes, P., Williams, S., and Faed, J., 1988, Blood lead, intelligence, reading attainment, and behaviour in eleven-year-old children in Dunedin, New Zealand, J. Child. Psycho!. Psychiatry 29:43–52.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C.M., DeLuca, H.F., Tanaka, Y., and Mahaffey, K.R., 1978, Stimulation of lead absorption by vitamin D administration, J. Nutr. 108:843–847.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, A.E., Gawron, O., and Kramer, B., 1938, Influence of vitamin D in experimental lead poisoning, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 38:433–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, A.E., Yuska, H., Peters, D.D., and Kramer, B., 1940, The biochemical behavior of lead: I. Influence of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D on lead in blood and bone, J. Biol. Chem. 132:239–265. Reprinted 1981 in Nutr. Rev. 39:374–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorrell, M., Rosen, J.F., and Roginsky, M., 1977, Interactions of lead, calcium, vitamin D, and nutrition in lead-burdened children, Arch. Environm. Health 32:160–164.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, G.N., Robertson, E.F., and Fitzgerald, S., 1985, Lead mobilization during pregnancy, Med. J. Aust. 143:131.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, G.O.B., Raab, G.M., Hepburn, W.S., Hunter, R., Fulton, M., and Laxen, D.P.H., 1989, Blood-lead levels and children’s behavior: Results from the Edinburgh lead study, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 30:515–528.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, A.J., 1897, Lead poisoning among Queensland children, Austr. Med. Gaz. 30:515–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 1985, Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children: A Statement by the Centers for Disease Control, January, No. 99–2230. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation Programs, 1984, An Estimation of the Daily Food Intake Based on Data from the 1977–78 USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, Tables 1 and 3, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June, 1986, Air Quality Criteria for Lead, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Research Triangle Park, NC.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987. Reducing Lead in Drinking Water: A Benefit Analysis. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, N., Durrant, S., Sankey, R., Bound, J., and Bryce-Smith, D., 1990, Elemental factors in human fetal development, J. Nutr. Med. 1:19–26.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, R.A., Thirapatsakun, T., and McSherry, B.J., 1972, Influence of rations low in calcium and phosphorus on blood and tissue lead concentrations in the horse, Am. J. Vet. Res. 33:1165–1173.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winder, C., and Kitchen, I., 1984, Lead neurotoxicity: A review of the biochemical, neurochemical and drug induced behavioral evidence, Prog. Neurobiol. 22:59–87.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yip, R., Norris, T.N., and Anderson, A.S., (1981) Iron status of children with elevated blood lead concentrations, J. Pediatr. 98:922–925.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, E.E., Edwards, B.B., Jensen, R.L., Mahaffey, K.R., and Fomon, S.J., 1978, Absorption and retention of lead by infants, Pediatr. Res. 12:29–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1992 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Riess, J.A., Needleman, H.L. (1992). Cognitive, Neural, and Behavioral Effects of Low-Level Lead Exposure. In: Isaacson, R.L., Jensen, K.F. (eds) The Vulnerable Brain and Environmental Risks. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-3330-6_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-3330-6_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6467-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-3330-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics