Skip to main content

Abstract

The terror attacks of 9/11/2001 dealt a serious blow to the sense of security, well-being, and economic stability of Americans, and altered the mental health landscape for those within the United States and other parts of the world. Paralleling this, new threats to emotional and psychological well-being have materialized in the form of anticipatory, prospective fears of future terrorist attacks. In light of this evolving environment, the present chapter seeks to augment the current science by presenting an assessment paradigm relevant to terrorist events specifically. This approach to psychological assessment expands on current models which focus on the impact of discrete events by also evaluating the impact of prospective fears of future attacks. Reflecting this paradigm shift, we introduce the Terrorism Catastrophizing Scale (TCS) as a means of evaluating the ongoing impact of terrorism on psychological functioning.

At present the psychological science needed to provide proper and effective treatment for victims of horrendous events such as September 11… simply does not exist.

Bruce Bongar [1]

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Bongar B. The psychology of terrorism: Describing the need and describing the goals. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, Beutler, L., J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), The Psychology of Terrorism, 2006; pp. 3–12. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  2. Laugharne J, Janca A, & Widiger T. Posttraumatic stress disorder and terrorism: 5 years after 9/11. Current Opinion in Pschiatry 2007; 20: 36–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Schuster MA, Stein BD, Jaycox LH, Collins RL, Marshall GN, Elliott MN, et al. A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine 2001; 345: 1507–1512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Silver RC, Holman EA, McIntosh DN, Poulin M, & Gil-Rivas V. Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association 2002; 288: 1235–1244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Galea S, Vlahov D, Resnick H, Ahern, Susser E, Gold J, et al. Trends of probable posttraumatic stress disorder in new york city after the September 11 terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology 2003; 158: 514–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Kramer ME, Brown A, Spielman L, Giosan C, & Rothrock M. Psychological reactions to the national terror alert system. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association’s 2004 annual conference.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Sinclair SJ, & LoCicero A. Anticipatory Fear and Catastrophizing About Terrorism: Development, Validation, and Psychometric Testing of the Terrorism Catastrophizing Scale (TCS). In Review.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Polling Report. War on Terrorism Polling Reports. Retrieved July 12, 2005 from http://www.pollingreport.com/terror.

  9. Zimbardo P. Overcoming terror. Retrieved February 2004 from http://www.psychologytoday.com/htdocs/prod/ptoarticle/pto-20030724-000000.asp.

  10. Ruzek JI, Maguen S, & Litz BT. Evidenced based interventions for survivors of terrorism. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, Beutler, L., J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), The Psychology of Terrorism 2006; pp. 3–12. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Flynn B. Commentary on “A national longitudinal study of the psychological consequences of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks: Reactions, impairment, and help-seeking. Can we influence the trajectory of psychological consequences to terrorism?” Psychiatry 2004; 67, 164–166.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Mass Disasters, Trauma, and Loss. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.istss.org/resources/disaster_trauma_and_loss.cfm.

  13. Pyszczynski T, Solomon S, & Greenberg J. In the wake of 9/11: The psychology of terror, 2003. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  14. Beck AT. Cognitive therapy of depression. 1979. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Beck JS. Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. 1995. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Brown TA, Antony MM, & Barlow DH. Psychometric properties of the penn state worry questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorders sample. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 1992; 30, 33–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Startup HM, & Davey CL. Mood as input and catastrophic worrying. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 2001; 110, 83–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Garnefski N, Teerds J, Kraaij V, Legerstee J, & van den Kommer T. Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: Differences between males and females. Personality and Individual Differences, 2004; 36, 267–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Sullivan MJL, Bishop SR, & Pivik J. The pain catastrophizing scale: Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 1995;7, 524–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Allison G. Nuclear terrorism: The ultimate preventable catastrophe. 2004. New York: Times Books.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Williams PL. Al qaeda connection: International terrorism, organized crime, and the coming apocalypse. 2005; New York: Prometheus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Young JE, Weinberger AD, & Beck AT. Cognitive therapy for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders: A Step by Step Treatment Manual-Third Edition. 2001; New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Beck AT. Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. 1976; New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Abramson LY, Seligman MEP, & Teasdale JD. Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1974; 87, 49–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Abramson LY, Metalsky GI, & Alloy LB. Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review 96, 1989; 358–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Morrow J, & Fredrickson BL. Response style and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1993; 102, 20–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 1987; 101, 259–282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1991; 100, 569–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Somer E, Tamir E, Maguen S, & Litz BT. Brief cognitive behavioral phone-based intervention targeting anxiety about the threat of an attack: A pilot study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2005; 43, 669–679.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Turner-Bowker DM, Bayliss MS, Ware JE, & Kosinski M. Usefulness of the SF-8 health survey for comparing then impact of migraine and other conditions. Quality of Life Research, 2003; 12:1003–1012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Antony MM, Bieling PJ, Cox BJ, Enns MW, & Swinson RP. Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 1998; 10, 176–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Cohen, J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 1978; Academic Press: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Sinclair SJ, & LoCicero A. Development and psychometric testing of the perceptions of terrorism questionnaire short-form (PTQ-SF). New School Psychology Bulletin, 2006; 4, 7–37.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Samuel J. Sinclair .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sinclair, S.J., LoCicero, A. (2009). Assessing the Ongoing Psychological Impact of Terrorism. In: Baer, L., Blais, M.A. (eds) Handbook of Clinical Rating Scales and Assessment in Psychiatry and Mental Health. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-387-5_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-387-5_13

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-966-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-387-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics