Abstract
The African Union has elected to be active in space exploration as part of its Agenda 2063, African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS), and has taken steps towards creating an African Space Agency. There are also various space-related activities already underway within some member states which the African Union may leverage since active participation and initiation of space-related activities in Africa will make progress towards meeting the continent’s socio-economic challenges. This chapter explores the ASPS, other continental space initiatives, how space law as an international piece of legislation evolved with time alongside the evolution of space exploration and the legal aspects and precedents that Africa will need to engage into develop its member States’ national laws juxtaposed with international laws, continental engagement in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, plus debates and initiatives around the African Space Agency. The particular focus on legal aspects is important since space law is a subset of international law and regulates all activities in and relating to outer space, and no holistic understanding of any area of space activities is possible without what the law is and how it works.
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Notes
- 1.
T. Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency: Commentary on Dr. Peter Martinez ‘Is there a need for an African Space Agency?’,” Space Policy 29 (2013): 169. Emphasis added.
- 2.
A. A. Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,” Space Policy 28, (2012): 283–290.
- 3.
Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency,” 168.
- 4.
Ibid., 170.
- 5.
Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena,” 5.
- 6.
Ibid., 6.
- 7.
African Union Commission, “African Union Heads of State and Government Adopts the African Space Policy and Strategy,” January 31, 2016, https://www.au.int/en/pressreleases/19677/african-union-heads-state-and-government-adopts-african-space-policy-and (accessed March 11, 2017).
- 8.
African Union Commission, “Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want—Popular Version,” 2015, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063.pdf (accessed February 28, 2017).
- 9.
African Union Commission, “African Union Heads of State and Government Adopts the African Space Policy and Strategy.” Emphasis added.
- 10.
African Union, “African Space Policy (Draft Version 7).” World Meteorological Organisation, n.d., 6, https://www.wmo.int/amcomet/sites/default/files/field/doc/events/african_space_policy-v7.pdf (accessed March 17, 2017).
- 11.
Ibid.
- 12.
African Union, “African space strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,” October, 2017, 7–8, https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/33178-wd-african_space_policy_-_st20444_e_original.pdf (accessed November 28, 2018).
- 13.
Ibid., 8.
- 14.
Ibid., 8–14.
- 15.
African Union, “African Space Strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,” October, 2017, 6–9, https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/33178-wd-african_space_strategy_-_st20445_e_original.pdf (accessed November 28, 2018).
- 16.
Ibid., 6.
- 17.
Ibid., 10.
- 18.
Ibid.
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
Ibid., 13.
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Ibid., 3.
- 23.
African Union, “African space policy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 8–9.
- 24.
African Union, “African Space Strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 18.
- 25.
Ibid., 20–21.
- 26.
African Union, “African space policy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 9–11.
- 27.
African Union, “African Space Strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 20.
- 28.
African Union, “African space policy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 11–12.
- 29.
Ibid., 12–13.
- 30.
Ibid., 13–14.
- 31.
Ibid., 14–15.
- 32.
African Union, “African Space Strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 6.
- 33.
African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want—Popular Version, 10.
- 34.
African Union Commission, “What is Agenda 2063?,” n.d., https://www.au.int/web/en/agenda2063 (accessed April 6, 2017).
- 35.
African Union Commission, “AU Commission Holds an Experts’ Workshop on Designing an African Space Strategy,” December 19, 2013, https://www.au.int/web/en/newsevents/27619/au-commission-holds-experts%E2%80%99-workshop-designing-african-space-strategy (accessed March 4, 2017).
- 36.
African Union Commission, “African Union Heads of State and Government Adopts the African Space Policy and Strategy.”.
- 37.
Ibid.
- 38.
For a full list, please consult http://www.rascom.org/info_detail.php?langue_id=2&id_r=25&id_sr=0&id_gr=2.
- 39.
For more information on this initiative (and Rascom QAF 1R), please see https://spaceflightnow.com/ariane/v196/.
- 40.
Sias Mostert, “The African Resource Management (ARM) Satellite Constellation,” African Skies/Cieux Africains 12, (2008): 53.
- 41.
Ibid., 55.
- 42.
Ibid., 53.
- 43.
Ibid., 54.
- 44.
L. Ngcofe and K. Gottschalk, “The growth of space science in African countries for Earth observation in the 21st century,” South African Journal of Science 109, no. 1/2 (2013): 3.
- 45.
P.H. Tuinder, “Basic principles of international space law,” In Keys to Space: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Space Studies, ed. A. Houston & M.J. Rycroft (Boston, Massachusetts: McGraw-Hill, 1999). 12-3–12-9.
- 46.
Ibid., 12-3.
- 47.
Ibid., 12-5.
- 48.
J. Dugard, International Law: A South African Perspective (Cape Town: Juta, 2012), 1.
- 49.
Jus cogens refer to a peremptory international law norm that must be complied with without deviation. Not many of these rules exist and are still mostly in development as this is a fairly new feature of IL. Examples are the prohibition of aggression, genocide and slavery. Ibid.
- 50.
Erga omnes are obligations “which a state owes to the international community as a whole and in the enforcement of which all states have an interest”. Ibid., 38.
- 51.
Ibid., 1.
- 52.
Some examples are the United Nations Charter, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, signed and ratified by a majority of states.
- 53.
The requirements to prove an IL rule developed by way of custom or conduct, requires the following: (a) settled practice (usus) and the acceptance by a state that it is bound to a rule (opinion juris), thus conduct and intention. See Dugard. Ibid., 26.
- 54.
Legal principles found in municipal law can be used to fill gaps in IL. See Dugard. Ibid., 34.
- 55.
Judicial decisions are increasingly used as more judgments are made by the International Court of Justice and other international tribunals. Though IL does not make use of judicial precedent, the practice is to refer to previous decisions. In contrast the teachings of publicists are used less due to growing abundance of the other sources. Dugard. Ibid., 35.
- 56.
In 1956, C. Wilfred Jenks published an article in The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, namely “International Law and Activities in Space” (Volume 5, Issue 1, January 1956) wherein he interrogates probable legal problems that could arise from activities in space, including making contact with extra-terrestrial intelligence.
- 57.
See the UN Treaties and Principles on Outer Space published by the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (2013): http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2013/stspace/stspace61_0_html/st_space_61E.pdf.
- 58.
The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) was also created to serve as the secretariat to UNCOPUOS. Today it also maintains the UN register for objects launched into outer space. See for more information: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/aboutus/roles-responsibilities.html.
- 59.
The importance of the support given by the only two space-faring nations in the world at that stage and the wide support it received from other states was to give these principles the status of international custom even to date. Dugard. Ibid. 397.
- 60.
Most importantly the OST establishes that space and celestial bodies are not available for appropriation and that space is the “province of all mankind”. As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the OST: 107 with 23 signatures. (http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf).
- 61.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the ARRA: 96 with 23 signatures.
- 62.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the LIAB: 95 with 19 signatures.
- 63.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the REG: 67 with 3 signatures.
- 64.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the MOON: 18 with 4 signatures.
- 65.
Other treaties include, e.g. the Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite of 1974, and treaties related to the establishment of international space organisations like INTERSPUTNIK, the European Space Agency, ARABSAT, INTERCOSMOS, EUTELSAT, and EUMETSAT.
- 66.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the NTB: 126 with 11 signatures.
- 67.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the ITSO: 150 with 1 signatures.
- 68.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the IMSO: 103.
- 69.
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the ITU: 193.
- 70.
- 71.
This is not a complete list of space-related resolutions. It is also important to note that the resolutions do not constitute ISL, but may be indicative of international custom. See Dugard. Ibid., 30.
- 72.
The resolution was adopted without a vote. See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/documents-and-resolutions/search.jspx?&view=resolutions.
- 73.
The resolution was adopted with a vote. See: https://library.un.org/sites/library.un.org/files/itp/a37_0.pdf. p. 454.
- 74.
The resolution was adopted without a vote: See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/1986/general_assembly_41st_session/res_4165.html.
- 75.
The resolution was adopted without a vote: See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/1992/general_assembly_47th_session/res_4768.html.
- 76.
The resolution was adopted without a vote: See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/1996/general_assembly_51st_session/ares51122.html.
- 77.
The resolution was adopted without a vote. See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/documents-and-resolutions/search.jspx?&view=resolutions.
- 78.
Ibid.
- 79.
Ibid.
- 80.
Ibid.
- 81.
The resolution was adopted with a vote. See: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/2007/general_assembly_62nd_session/ares62217.html.
- 82.
The resolution was adopted without a vote. See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/documents-and-resolutions/search.jspx?&view=resolutions.
- 83.
Ibid.
- 84.
The resolution was adopted without a vote. See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/2015/general_assembly_70th_session/ares70230.html.
- 85.
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Members of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html (accessed February 3, 2019).
- 86.
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: 2017,” 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/aac_105c_12017crp/aac_105c_12017crp_2_0_html/AC105_C1_2017_CRP02E.pdf (accessed March 16, 2017).
- 87.
J.A. Dennerley, “Emerging Space Nations and the Development of International Regulatory Regimes,” Space Policy 35, (2016): 29.
- 88.
Ibid., 29–31.
- 89.
Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,” 286.
- 90.
Ibid., 289.
- 91.
African Union Commission, “AGENDA 2063: The Africa We Want—A Shared Strategic Framework for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development, First Ten Year Implementation Plan 2014-2023,” 2015, 24 & 81, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-first10yearimplementation.pdf (accessed March 4, 2017).
- 92.
Kieth Gottschalk, “Roles of Africa's Institutions in Ensuring Africa's Active Participation in the Space Enterprise: The Case for an African Space Agency,” African Skies/Cieux Africains 12, (2008): 27–28.
- 93.
Peter Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?,” Space Policy 28, (2012): 145.
- 94.
Ibid., 143.
- 95.
Ibid.
- 96.
Ibid., 144.
- 97.
Ibid., 143.
- 98.
Ibid., 145.
- 99.
Peter Martinez, “The Development and Initial Implementation of South Africa’s National Space Policy,” Space Policy 37, (2016): 30–31.
- 100.
Ibid.
- 101.
K. Koschatzky and H. Knoll, “Which side of the coin? The regional governance of science and innovation,” Regional Studies 41, no. 8 (2007): 1115–1127.
- 102.
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?.”.
- 103.
V. Munsami and A. Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African Space Programme,” Space Policy, (2017): 1–27.
- 104.
These RECs are: the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU/UMA), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) External, the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CENSAD). For more information, please visit https://www.au.int/web/en/organs/recs.
- 105.
Munsami and Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African Space Programme.”.
- 106.
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?.”.
- 107.
Ibid., 143.
- 108.
Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency,” 173.
- 109.
Ibid.
- 110.
Ibid.
- 111.
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?,” 144.
- 112.
Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency,” 170.
- 113.
Ibid.
- 114.
Ibid., 172.
- 115.
Munsami and Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African Space Programme,” 1.
- 116.
Ibid., 2.
- 117.
Ibid.
- 118.
Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency,” 172.
- 119.
V. Munsami, and E. O. Offiong, “Should Africa follow the European space governance model for an African space programme?,” Space Policy, (2017): 6.
- 120.
Ibid.
- 121.
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?,” 145.
- 122.
African Union Commission. 2018. Decisions, Declarations and Resolution of the Assembly of the Union Thirtieth Ordinary Session Assembly. Available: https://au.int/en/decisions/decisions-declarations-and-resolution-assembly-union-thirtieth-ordinary-session [2019, February 1].
- 123.
Article 2 of the Statute Establishing the African Space Agency (herein referred to as the Statute of AfSA).
- 124.
Article 4 of the Statute of AfSA.
- 125.
Article 8 of the Statute of AfSA.
- 126.
African Union Commission. 2018. Decisions, Declarations and Resolution of the Assembly of the Union Thirtieth Ordinary Session Assembly. Available: https://au.int/en/decisions/decisions-declarations-and-resolution-assembly-union-thirtieth-ordinary-session [2019, February 1].
- 127.
Article 10 of the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (Abuja Treaty, 1991).
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Siebrits, A., Mookeletsi, O., Alberts, A., Gairiseb, A. (2019). Africa and Space. In: Froehlich, A. (eds) Integrated Space for African Society. Southern Space Studies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_2
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