Abstract
This chapter examines how histories of outlaws and disorder feature in conversations about heritage in the Maloti-Drakensberg during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. King focuses on development as a major factor driving heritage projects in Lesotho, and charts three decades of heritage schemes through the archaeological grey literature associated with large infrastructure construction. She demonstrates where these programmes channel material benefits to people who claim ordered or settled histories, making a crucial connection between historical or archaeological visibility and rights to development. In contrasting examples of heritage in South Africa and Lesotho, the chapter also illustrates that heritage does not have to be made public to drive a sense of belonging. King considers how future development schemes in Lesotho will impact the heritage of the Maloti-Drakensberg, arguing for an ethical inter-disciplinarity that considers the consequences of research being used to justify industrial or policy positions.
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Notes
- 1.
Mitigation operations in development projects are governed by the ‘polluter pays’ principle, which is inherently geared towards addressing environmental rather than cultural impacts. This introduces a suite of methodological issues for heritage managers attempting to operate within a polluter pays framework, as the timescale and extent of damage differs between the two sets of assets, as do the ways in which they can be valuated, preserved, and curated; see King and Nic Eoin (2014).
- 2.
For instance, the changing uses, abuses, and popular perceptions of the chieftainship, coupled with Lesotho’s turbulent government in the last decades of the twentieth century, led Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle of the Basutoland Congress Party to suggest that Moshoeshoe’s mentor, the prophet Mohlomi, was the true founder of Sesotho (Mokhehle 1990; Coplan and Quinlan 1997, 48–49).
- 3.
Construction began on the museum in 1973, but this was torn down in 1980 as per a decision by government to make room for a new office building (Gill 2015, 52–53). Several additional abortive efforts have been made to find or build a suitable location for the museum, and a new building is currently under construction in downtown Maseru.
- 4.
Although Vinnicombe was an amateur at the time, her work came to set professional standards for rock art recording in the subcontinent.
- 5.
My discussion here omits a major player from Lesotho’s resource development landscape: Letšeng Diamonds, a mining operation in Lesotho’s northern highlands variously explored and mined by Rio Tinto and De Beers, and currently owned by Gem Diamonds and the Lesotho government. Through personal communications and connections with colleagues in Lesotho, I am aware that Letšeng has conducted oral historical and heritage survey operations in recent years. However, as none of this has been published and as Letšeng’s heritage work and policies remain relatively confined to the mine’s immediate holdings, this material will not be covered in this book.
- 6.
The Department of Culture went through numerous incarnations between 1966 and the present, and spent much of the 1970s and 1980s within the Ministry of Education, with heritage management seen as an educational endeavour.
- 7.
Government of Lesotho and Government of South Africa ‘Treaty on the Lesotho Highlands Water Project between the Government of the Kingdom of Lesotho and the Government of the Republic of South Africa signed at Maseru, 24 October 1986’. Keeping track of the state, parastatal, and private entities involved in the LHWP is challenging but a brief sketch is useful. The LHWP is implemented by the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority and its actions subject to approval and monitoring by the overseeing Lesotho Highlands Water Commission, a body consisting of three representatives each from South Africa and Lesotho. The more complex array of international entities comes into play concerning financing the dams and their infrastructure, and the consortia of contractors and consultants responsible for impact assessments and managing implementation.
- 8.
This was partly due to a publication embargo imposed by the developer on specialist reports, and represents a major reason why grey literature stays grey.
- 9.
This issue of storing rock art panels re-emerged in the context of Metolong Dam. There, the Lesotho government insisted on removing panels for eventual display and keeping these stored in Lesotho until a museum could be built.
- 10.
This despite recent genetic research demonstrating that much of Lesotho’s population has substantial input from Khoe/San genomes (Montinaro et al. 2016).
- 11.
This strategy is redolent of the ‘fortress conservation’ (e.g. Brockington 2002) approach to wildlife management that was a global standard in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Over the past few decades, this approach has been criticised as placing parks over people by excluding (or even removing) people from parkland in the name of protecting ecologies valued as tourism destinations and hunting grounds.
- 12.
Lesotho National Archives (henceforth, LNA), Foyer, Kingdom of Lesotho Sixth National Development Plan 1996/1997–1998/1999, 216–217.
- 13.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee (henceforth, WHC), MDP, D CONF 204 X.B.1, 2000; UNESCO WHC, Maloti-Drakensberg Park (henceforth, MDP) dossier, Decision (henceforth, D) 37 COM 8B.18, 2013.
- 14.
Lynn Meskell’s (2013, 2014, 2015, 2018; Meskell et al. 2015) recent institutional ethnographies of UNESCO and its World Heritage Committee (the body charged with deciding on World Heritage Status and composed of delegations of member states) illustrates that for the past few years member states have been routinely overriding expert recommendations by ICOMOS in favour of inscribing sites more swiftly and with less oversight. This has been especially the case where member states have formed voting blocs (notably the BRICS countries: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) to support nominations from smaller states or states outside of Europe and North America. That ICOMOS’s recommendations for SNP were not bucked in similar fashion (and thus breaking from this trend) is notable and worth paying attention to if Lesotho makes further nominations and attempts to align itself with a larger network of member states.
- 15.
UNESCO WHC, MDP, ICOMOS Advisory Body Evaluation 2013.
- 16.
Ibid., 29.
- 17.
Ibid., 32.
- 18.
Ibid., 28.
- 19.
UNESCO WHC, WHC-15/39.COM/7B, ‘State of conservation of properties inscribed on the World Heritage List’, 2015; MDP, D 39 COM 7B.33, 2015.
- 20.
UNESCO WHC, MDP, State of Conservation Reports by State Parties, ‘State of Conservation Report for the Maloti-Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site, Submitted by the Governments of the Kingdom of Lesotho and the Republic of South Africa’, February 2015, 2.
- 21.
UNESCO WHC, MDP, State of Conservation Reports, Francis Rakotsane, ‘Research Report: Sehlabathebe National Park Oral History, 22 January 2015’ in ‘SOC Report Maloti-Drakensberg World Heritage Site’, 2017.
- 22.
As plans to develop Thaba Bosiu as a national monument were underway in the early 1990s, historian Mosebi Damane insisted that Thaba Bosiu should be considered a ‘spiritual site’ and shrine as much as (if not more than) a monument. His correspondence on the matter does not detail how he distinguishes these kinds of places, but his emphasis on this spiritual element of the mountaintop suggests an interesting comparison between popular engagement with Thaba Bosiu and Thaba Moorosi as more than symbols of their associated leaders. See LNA, Tourism Sports & Culture 7/4–5, ‘Remarks, by M. Damane on the feasibility study of Thaba Bosiu Project’, 4 September 1991; M. Damane to Director of Tourism, 7 June 1993.
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King, R. (2019). Things of the Nation: Disorderly Heritage. In: Outlaws, Anxiety, and Disorder in Southern Africa. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18412-4_7
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