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Access to Social Security for Migrants in the European Union: Sedentarist Biases Between Citizenship, Residence and Claims for a Post-national Society

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Borders, Legal Spaces and Territories in Contemporary International Law

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Abstract

This chapter analyses the conditions to access social security for third-country nationals moving across European borders under the theories of sedentarism and post-nationalism. According to the concept of sedentarism, citizenship is a ‘right to have rights’. Post-nationalism, instead, claims that citizenship is an outdated concept and calls for societies to be organized beyond the nation-states. Through this chapter, both theoretical approaches will be tested upon the study of the conditions to access social security in the European Union, showing that in most legal systems access to social benefits is granted upon evidence of a certain degree of connection with the territory, usually in the form of prolonged legal residence or payment of a minimum of social security contributions. The last section of the chapter will analyse possible alternatives to sedentarism, with the purpose of overcoming the discriminatory effects of sedentary biases and ensuring the equal respect of every person’s human rights.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    McVeigh (1997), p. 9.

  2. 2.

    Sassen (2006).

  3. 3.

    C102—Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 (No. 102) (adopted 28 June 1952, entered into force 27 April 1955).

  4. 4.

    Carens (2013).

  5. 5.

    Unger (1983), p. 566.

  6. 6.

    Ibid., p. 564.

  7. 7.

    Malkki (1992), p. 31.

  8. 8.

    McVeigh (1997), p. 9.

  9. 9.

    Cresswell (2006), p. 29.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., p. 26.

  11. 11.

    Cf. Tsianos et al. (2008), p. 5.

  12. 12.

    Sassen (2006), p. 4.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., p. 5.

  14. 14.

    Cresswell (2006), p. 26.

  15. 15.

    Bellamy (2008), p. 18.

  16. 16.

    Bauböck (2006), p. 5.

  17. 17.

    Bellamy (2008), p. 18.

  18. 18.

    Heywood (1994).

  19. 19.

    Brubaker (1995), p. 21.

  20. 20.

    Bellamy (2008), p. 39.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., p. 34.

  22. 22.

    Schnapper (1994), in Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 32.

  23. 23.

    Bellamy (2008), p. 35.

  24. 24.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 34.

  25. 25.

    Tuck and Hobbes (1991) and Mairet and Rousseau (1996).

  26. 26.

    Marshall (1950), pp. 15–17.

  27. 27.

    Ibid., p. 18.

  28. 28.

    Hammar (1994), p. 49.

  29. 29.

    Ibid., p. 48.

  30. 30.

    Ibid., p. 45.

  31. 31.

    Ibid., pp. 43–45.

  32. 32.

    Marshall (1950), p. 21.

  33. 33.

    O’Dowd (2002), p. 16.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., p. 17.

  35. 35.

    Koikkalainen (2011).

  36. 36.

    Tsianos et al. (2008), p. 6.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., p. 6.

  38. 38.

    Hampshire (2013), pp. 112–116.

  39. 39.

    Sassen (2006), p. 277.

  40. 40.

    Ibid., p. 280.

  41. 41.

    Bellamy (2008), p. 52.

  42. 42.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 7.

  43. 43.

    Hammar (1994), p. 13.

  44. 44.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 101.

  45. 45.

    Soysal (1994) and Jacobson (1997).

  46. 46.

    Bosniak (2000).

  47. 47.

    Marshall (1950), p. 21.

  48. 48.

    ILO, ‘World Social Protection Report 2014/15’ (ILO 2014) 163.

  49. 49.

    Bonilla Garcia and Gruat (2003), p. 13.

  50. 50.

    C102—Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 (No. 102) (adopted 28 June 1952, entered into force 27 April 1955).

  51. 51.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR) .

  52. 52.

    International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR).

  53. 53.

    International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (adopted 21 December 1965, entered into force 4 January 1969) 660 UNTS 195 (ICERD).

  54. 54.

    UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), ‘General Comment No. 19: The right to social security (Art. 9 of the Covenant)’ (4 February 2008) UN Doc E/C.12/GC/19.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., para 36.

  56. 56.

    Ibid.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., para 31.

  58. 58.

    See Special Protection Floor, ‘The Special Protection Floor Initiative’ (SPF-I Secretariat), <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-ed_protect/%2D%2D-soc_sec/documents/publication/wcms_207781.pdf>. Accessed 30 December 2018.

  59. 59.

    UN General Assembly , ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights’ (11 August 2014) UN Doc A/69/297.

  60. 60.

    International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (adopted 18 December 1990, entered into force 1 July 2003) (ICMW).

  61. 61.

    However, as of 2017 no European Union country has ratified this Convention.

  62. 62.

    UNGA , Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants on a 2035 agenda for facilitating human mobility (28 April 2017) UN Doc A/HRC/35/25.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., pp. 12–13.

  64. 64.

    C118—Equality of Treatment (Social Security) Convention, 1962 (No.118) (adopted 28 June 1962, entered into force 25 April 1964).

  65. 65.

    C157—Maintenance of Social Security Rights Convention, 1982 (No. 157) (adopted 21 June 1982, entered into force 11 September 1986).

  66. 66.

    C097—Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), 1949 (No. 97) (adopted 1 July 1949, entered into force 22 January 1952).

  67. 67.

    C143—Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975 (No. 143) (adopted 24 June 1975, entered into force 9 December 1978).

  68. 68.

    For instance, under art 4 of C118—Equality of Treatment (Social Security) Convention, 1962 (No.118), countries can subject access to social benefits to certain residence requirements, which cannot exceed the duration prescribed by the Convention itself. Moreover limitations may applied with regards to benefits financed entirely out of public funds and allowances to persons who do not fulfil the normal contribution conditions required for receiving a pension (see C097—Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), 1949 (No. 97), art 6(b)(ii)).

  69. 69.

    European Social Charter (Revised) (3 May 1996) ETS 163 (European Social Charter).

  70. 70.

    European Committee on Social Rights , International federation of Human Rights Leagues (FIDH) v France (Decision on the merit) Complaint No. 14/2003 (8 September 2004) para 32.

  71. 71.

    Council of Europe, Resolution on Human Rights of Irregular Migrants (27 June 2006) Res 1509 (2006), Doc 10924, art 13.

  72. 72.

    Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) , art 14.

  73. 73.

    Dhahbi v Italy, App no 17120/09 (ECtHR, 8 April 2014).

  74. 74.

    Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (26 October 2012) [2012] OJ C326/391 (Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union), art 34.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., art 35.

  76. 76.

    Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, art 14.

  77. 77.

    Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin [2000] OJ L180/22.

  78. 78.

    According to the Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, the European Union has shared competence in the area of social policy, for the aspects defined in the Treaty (art 4(b), competence to carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement the actions of the Member States in the area of protection and improvement of human health (art 6(a)). The area of social policy is then object of Title X of the Treaty, which affirms that ‘[t]he Union and the Member States, having in mind fundamental social rights such as those set out in the European Social Charter signed at Turin on 18 October 1961 and in the 1989 Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers, shall have as their objectives the promotion of employment, improved living and working conditions, so as to make possible their harmonisation while the improvement is being maintained, proper social protection, dialogue between management and labour, the development of human resources with a view to lasting high employment and the combating of exclusion.’ (art 151), while Title XIV deals with the area of public health and states that ‘Union action, which shall complement national policies, shall be directed towards improving public health, preventing physical and mental illness and diseases, and obviating sources of danger to physical and mental health’ (art 168) (Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2008] OJ C115/13).

  79. 79.

    Regulation (EC) No 883/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the coordination of social security systems [2004] OJ L200/1; Regulation (EC) No 987/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 September 2009 laying down the procedure for implementing Regulation (EC) No 883/2004 on the coordination of social security systems [2009] OJ L284/1.

  80. 80.

    Regulation (EU) No 1231/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 extending Regulation (EC) No 883/2004 and Regulation (EC) No 987/2009 to nationals of third countries who are not already covered by these Regulations solely on the ground of their nationality [2010] OJ L344/1.

  81. 81.

    In Elisabeta Dano v Jobcenter Leipzig, the European Court of Justice analysed the relationship between Directive 2004/38, which regulates the right of residence for European Union citizens, and Regulation No. 883/2004 on the coordination of social security provision, and established that EU citizens who cannot claim a right of residence under Directive 2004/83 can be excluded from social assistance non-contributory cash benefits (Case C-333/13, Elisabeta Dano v Jobcenter Leipzig [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:2358).

  82. 82.

    Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents [2004] OJ L16/44.

  83. 83.

    Ibid., p. 19.

  84. 84.

    Case C-571/10, Servet Kamberaj v Istituto per l’Edilizia sociale della Provincia autonoma di Bolzano (IPES), Giunta della Provincia autonoma di Bolzano, Provincia autonoma di Bolzano [2012] ECLI:EU:C:2012:233.

  85. 85.

    See, for instance, Council Directive 2005/71/EC of 12 October 2005 on a specific procedure for admitting third-country nationals for the purposes of scientific research [2005] OJ L289/15; Council Directive 2009/50/EC of 25 May 2009 on the conditions of entry and residence of third-country nationals for the purposes of highly qualified employment [2009] OJ L155/17; Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted [2011] OJ L337/9; Directive 2011/98/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on a single application procedure for a single permit for third-country nationals to reside and work in the territory of a Member State and on a common set of rights for third-country workers legally residing in a Member State [2011] OJ L343/1; Directive 2014/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on the conditions of entry and stay of third-country nationals for the purpose of employment as seasonal workers [2014] OJ L94/375; Directive 2014/66/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 on the conditions of entry and residence of third-country nationals in the framework of an intra-corporate transfer [2014] OJ L157/1; Directive (EU) 2016/801 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2016 on the conditions of entry and residence of third-country nationals for the purposes of research, studies, training, voluntary service, pupil exchange schemes or educational projects and au pairing [2016] OJ L132/21.

  86. 86.

    McVeigh (1997), p. 9.

  87. 87.

    Ibid., p. 1.

  88. 88.

    European Commission, ‘Your Rights Country by Country - Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion’ (Ec.europa.eu, 2017) <http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=858&langId=en>. Accessed 31 March 2017.

  89. 89.

    ‘Results List of Browse by Country – NATLEX’ ( Ilo.org , 2017) <http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.listResults?p_lang=en&p_count=100743&p_classification=15&p_classcount=21395>. Accessed 31 March 2017.

  90. 90.

    Social Security Administration, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy and Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, ‘Social Security Programs Throughout the World: Europe, 2016’ <www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/ssptw/2016-2017/europe/index.html>. Accessed 31 March 2017.

  91. 91.

    European Migration Network , ‘Migrant Access to Social Security and Healthcare: Policies and Practice’ (European Commission 2014) <www.emncz.eu/files/books/105.pdf>. Accessed 31 March 2017, 7.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., p. 16.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., p. 9.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., p. 7.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., p. 8.

  96. 96.

    Totalization means the aggregation, or the sum, of all the periods of contribution paid in the different countries in order to meet the qualifying period requirement. Cf. Tamagno et al. (2011), p. 33.

  97. 97.

    Marouda et al. (2013), p. 34.

  98. 98.

    Cattacin and Cuadra (2010), p. 13.

  99. 99.

    Hammar (1994), p. 13.

  100. 100.

    Carens (2013), p. 20.

  101. 101.

    Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents (n 82); European Commission, ‘EU Immigration Portal - Already in the EU’ (Ec.europa.eu, 2017) <http://ec.europa.eu/immigration/who-does-what/what-does-the-eu-do/already-in-the-eu_en#longterm>. Accessed 31 March 2017.

  102. 102.

    Hammar (1994), p. 17.

  103. 103.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 101.

  104. 104.

    Hampshire (2013), p. 109.

  105. 105.

    Ibid., p. 109.

  106. 106.

    Joppke (2007), p. 44.

  107. 107.

    Ibid., p. 39. Becucci (2006); Sciarra and Chiaromonte (2014), p. 124.

  108. 108.

    Becucci (2006), pp. 25–41; Sciarra and Chiaromonte (2014), pp. 120–133.

  109. 109.

    Elisabeta Dano (n 81).

  110. 110.

    (n 75).

  111. 111.

    Cresswell (2006), p. 26.

  112. 112.

    UDHR, preamble.

  113. 113.

    UDHR, art 25; ICESCR, art 12; CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 14 on the right to the highest attainable standard of health – Article 12’ (11 August 2000) UN Doc E/C.12/2000/4, para 33; CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 3 on the Nature of States Parties’ Obligations - Art. 2, Para. 1, of the Covenant’ (14 December 1990) UN Doc E/1991/23.

  114. 114.

    Tsianos et al. (2008), p. 182.

  115. 115.

    Shklar (1991), p. 450.

  116. 116.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 212.

  117. 117.

    Hampshire (2013), p. 109.

  118. 118.

    Milanovic (2015).

  119. 119.

    Shachar (2009).

  120. 120.

    Cornia (2003), p. 427.

  121. 121.

    Hardoon (2017), p. 2.

  122. 122.

    Milanovic (2012, 2015).

  123. 123.

    Sutcliffe (2004), p. 35.

  124. 124.

    Van Hear (2014), p. 109.

  125. 125.

    Shachar (2009), p. 1.

  126. 126.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. viii.

  127. 127.

    Nussbaum (1996), p. 431.

  128. 128.

    Carens (2008), p. 22; Wild (2015).

  129. 129.

    Wild and Heilinger (2013), p. 19.

  130. 130.

    Carens (2013), p. vii.

  131. 131.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. viii.

  132. 132.

    Sassen (2006), p. 286.

  133. 133.

    Carens (2013), p. 159.

  134. 134.

    Ibid., pp. 159–160.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., p. 164.

  136. 136.

    Furthermore, Carens develops a theory of open borders, which he sees as a second, complementary step to the full realization of a fair migration system . However, the author explains that the implementation of the theory of social membership can represent a separate, self-standing programme, which can be fulfilled independently from a change in the international border management system. Ibid., p. 162.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., p. 162.

  138. 138.

    Davidson and Castles (2000), p. 101.

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  1. OMCT – World Organisation Against Torture, Brussels, Belgium

    Marta Gionco

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    Tommaso Natoli

  2. Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy

    Alice Riccardi

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Gionco, M. (2019). Access to Social Security for Migrants in the European Union: Sedentarist Biases Between Citizenship, Residence and Claims for a Post-national Society. In: Natoli, T., Riccardi, A. (eds) Borders, Legal Spaces and Territories in Contemporary International Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20929-2_2

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