Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Nutrition Strategies for Triathlon

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Triathlon Medicine

Abstract

Contemporary sports nutrition guidelines recommend that each athlete develop a personalised, periodised and practical approach to eating that allows him or her to train hard, recover and adapt optimally, stay free of illness and injury and compete at their best at peak races. Competitive triathletes undertake a heavy training programme to prepare for three different sports while undertaking races varying in duration from 20 min to 10 h. The everyday diet should be adequate in energy availability, provide CHO in varying amounts and timing around workouts according to the benefits of training with low or high CHO availability and spread high-quality protein over the day to maximise the adaptive response to each session. Race nutrition requires a targeted and well-practised plan that maintains fuel and hydration goals over the duration of the specific event, according to the opportunities provided by the race and other challenges, such as a hot environment. Supplements and sports foods can make a small contribution to a sports nutrition plan, when medical supplements are used under supervision to prevent/treat nutrient deficiencies (e.g. iron or vitamin D) or when sports foods provide a convenient source of nutrients when it is impractical to eat whole foods. Finally, a few evidence-based performance supplements may contribute to optimal race performance when used according to best practice protocols to suit the triathlete’s goals and individual responsiveness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Burke LM, Hawley JA. Swifter, higher, stronger: what’s on the menu? Science. 2018;362(6416):781–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. American College of Sports Medicine Joint Position Statement. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(3):543–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Maughan RJ, Burke LM, Dvorak J, Larson-Meyer DE, Peeling P, Phillips SM, et al. IOC Consensus Statement: Dietary supplements and the high-performance athlete. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(2):104–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. American College of Sports Medicine, Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain SJ, Stachenfeld NS. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):377–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Ackerman KE, Blauwet C, Constantini N, et al. International Olympic Committee (IOC) Consensus Statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):316–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Coyle EF. Timing and method of increased carbohydrate intake to cope with heavy training, competition and recovery. J Sports Sci. 1991;9. (Suppl:29–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Burke LM, Kiens B, Ivy JL. Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery. J Sports Sci. 2004;22(1):15–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Burke LM, Hawley JA, Wong SH, Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrates for training and competition. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(Suppl 1):S17–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Stellingwerff T, Morton JP, Burke LM. A framework for periodised nutrition for athletics. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2019;29:141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Sharma AP, Periard JD. Physiological requirements of the different distances of triathlon. In: Migliorini S, editor. Triathlon medicine. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Loucks AB, Kiens B, Wright HH. Energy availability in athletes. J Sports Sci. 1991;29(Suppl 1):S7–15.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Loucks AB, Verdun M, Heath EM. Low energy availability, not stress of exercise, alters LH pulsatility in exercising women. J Appl Physiol. 1998;84(1):37–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Nattiv A, Loucks AB, Manore MM, Sanborn CF, Sundgot-Borgen J, Warren MP. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. The female athlete triad. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(10):1867–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Burke LM, Close GL, Lundy B, Mooses M, Morton JP, Tenforde AS. Relative energy deficiency in sport in male athletes: a commentary on its presentation among selected groups of male athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):364–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Ackland TR, Lohman TG, Sundgot-Borgen J, Maughan RJ, Meyer NL, Stewart AD, Müller W. Current status of body composition assessment in sport: review and position statement on behalf of the ad hoc research working group on body composition health and performance, under the auspices of the I.O.C. Medical Commission. Sports Med. 2012;42(3):227–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Slater G, Shaw G, Kerr A. Athlete considerations for physique measurement. In: Hume P, Kerr D, Ackland T, editors. Best practice protocols for physique assessment in sport. Singapore: Springer; 2018. p. 47–60.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  17. Hector AJ, Phillips SM. Protein recommendations for weight loss in elite athletes: a focus on body composition and performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(2):170–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Witard OC, Garthe I, Phillips SM. Dietary protein for training adaptation and body composition manipulation in track and field athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2019;29(2):165–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Stellingwerff T. Case study: body composition periodization in an Olympic-level female middle-distance runner over a 9-year career. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):428–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Hargreaves M, Spriet LL. Exercise metabolism: fuels for the fire. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2018;8(8):a029744.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Burke LM, Hawley JA, Jeukendrup A, Morton JP, Stellingwerff T, Maughan RJ. Toward a common understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training and competition preparation in endurance sport. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(5):451–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Stellingwerff T, Cox GR. Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014;39(9):998–1011.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Peake JM, Neubauer O, Walsh NP, Simpson RJ. Recovery of the immune system after exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2017;122(5):1077–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Sale C, Varley I, Jones TW, James RM, Tang JC, Fraser WD, Greeves JP. Effect of carbohydrate feeding on the bone metabolic response to running. J Appl Physiol. 2015;119(7):824–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Areta JL, Hopkins WG. Skeletal muscle glycogen content at rest and during endurance exercise in humans: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2018;48(9):2091–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Phillips SM, Chevalier S, Leidy HJ. Protein “requirements” beyond the RDA: implications for optimizing health. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(5):565–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Stokes T, Hector AJ, Morton RW, McGlory C, Phillips SM. Recent perspectives regarding the role of dietary protein for the promotion of muscle hypertrophy with resistance exercise training. Nutrients. 2018;10. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020180.

  28. Moore DR, Camera DM, Areta JL, Hawley JA. Beyond muscle hypertrophy: why dietary protein is important for endurance athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014;39:987–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. McGlory C, van Vliet S, Stokes T, Mittendorfer B, Phillips SM. The impact of exercise and nutrition on the regulation of skeletal muscle mass. J Physiol. 2019;597(5):1251–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Beelen M, Zorenc A, Pennings B, Senden JM, Kuipers H, van Loon LJ. Impact of protein coingestion on muscle protein synthesis during continuous endurance type exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011;300(6):E945–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Townsend R, Elliott-Sale KJ, Currell K, Tang J, Fraser WD, Sale C. The effect of postexercise carbohydrate and protein ingestion on bone metabolism. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49(6):1209–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Burke LM, Jeukendrup AE, Jones AM, Mooses M. Contemporary nutrition strategies to optimize performance in distance runners and race walkers. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2019;29:117–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilisation during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol. 1986;61:165–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Jeukendrup AE. Training the gut for athletes. Sports Med. 2017;47(Suppl 1):101–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate and exercise performance: the role of multiple transportable carbohydrates. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13(4):452–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Jeukendrup AE, Chambers ES. Oral carbohydrate sensing and exercise performance. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13(4):447–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Volek JS, Noakes T, Phinney SD. Rethinking fat as a fuel for endurance exercise. Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(1):13–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Burke LM, Ross ML, Garvican-Lewis LA, Welvaert M, Heikura IA, Forbes SG, et al. Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers. J Appl Physiol. 2017;595(9):2785–807.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Stellingwerff T, Spriet LL, Watt MJ, Kimber NE, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, et al. Decreased PDH activation and glycogenolysis during exercise following fat adaptation with carbohydrate restoration. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006;290(2):E380–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Havemann L, West S, Goedecke JH, McDonald IA, St-Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD, et al. Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate-loading compromises high-intensity sprint performance. J Appl Physiol. 2006;100(1):194–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Burke LM. Re-examining high-fat diets for sports performance: did we call the ‘nail in the coffin’ too soon? Sports Med. 2015;45(Suppl 1):S33–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Maunder E, Kilding AE, Plews DJ. Substrate metabolism during ironman triathlon: different horses on the same courses. Sports Med. 2018;48(10):2219–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Webster CC, Smith JA. Comment on: Substrate metabolism during ironman triathlon: different horses on the same courses. Sports Med. 2018;48(10):2421–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Maunder E, Kilding AE, Plews DJ. Authors’ reply to Webster and Smith: Comment on: “Substrate metabolism during ironman triathlon: different horses on the same courses”. Sports Med. 2018;48(10):2423–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Webster CC, Swart J, Noakes TD, Smith JA. A carbohydrate ingestion intervention in an elite athlete who follows a LCHF diet. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2017;13(7):957–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Mujika I. Case study: Long-term low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet impairs performance and subjective well-being in a world-class vegetarian long-distance triathlete. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;13:1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Pfeiffer B, Stellingwerff T, Hodgson AB, Randell R, Pottgen K, Res P, et al. Nutritional intake and gastrointestinal problems during competitive endurance events. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(2):344–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Hypohydration and human performance: impact of environment and physiological mechanisms. Sports Med. 2015;45(Suppl 1):S51–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Cox GR, Snow RJ, Burke LM. Race-day carbohydrate intakes of elite triathletes contesting olympic-distance triathlon events. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010;20(4):299–306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Hew-Butler T, Rosner MH, Fowkes-Godek S, Dugas JP, Hoffman MD, Lewis DP, et al. Statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, Carlsbad, California, 2015. Clin J Sport Med. 2015;25(4):303–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Racinais S, Alonso JM, Coutts AJ, Flouris AD, Girard O, Gonzalez-Alonso J, et al. Consensus recommendations on training and competing in the heat. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(18):1164–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Goulet EDB, Aubertin-Leheudre M, Plante GE, Dionne IJ. A meta-analysis of the effects of glycerol-induced hyperhydration on fluid retention and endurance performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17(4):391–410.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Goulet EDB, De La Flore A, Savoie FA, Gosselin J. Salt + glycerol-induced hyperhydration enhances fluid retention more than salt- or glycerol-induced hyperhydration. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(3):246–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Ross M, Abbiss C, Laursen P, Martin D, Burke L. Precooling methods and their effects on athletic performance: a systematic review and practical applications. Sports Med. 2013;43(3):207–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Burke LM, van Loon LJC, Hawley JA. Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2017;122(5):1055–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM. Water replacement before, during, and after exercise: how much is enough? In: Fluid balance, hydration, and athletic performance. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2015. p. 365–75.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  57. Betts JA, Williams C. Short-term recovery from prolonged exercise exploring the potential for protein ingestion to accentuate the benefits of carbohydrate supplements. Sports Med. 2010;40(11):941–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Garrett AT, Goosens NG, Rehrer NJ, Patterson MJ, Harrison J, Sammut I, et al. Short-term heat acclimation is effective and may be enhanced rather than impaired by dehydration. Am J Hum Biol. 2014;26(3):311–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Philp A, Hargreaves M, Baar K. More than a store: regulatory roles for glycogen in skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2012;302(11):E1343–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hearris MA, Hammond KM, Fell JM, Morton JP. Regulation of muscle glycogen metabolism during exercise: implications for endurance performance and training adaptations. Nutrients. 2018;10(3):E298.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Marquet LA, Brisswalter J, Louis J, Tiollier E, Burke LM, Hawley JA, et al. Enhanced endurance performance by periodization of carbohydrate intake: “sleep low” strategy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(4):663–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Gejl KD, Thams LB, Hansen M, Rokkedal-Lausch T, Plomgaard P, Nybo L, et al. No superior adaptations to carbohydrate periodization in elite endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49(12):2486–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Stellingwerff T. Case study: nutrition and training periodization in three elite marathon runners. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;22(5):392–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Gomez-Cabrera MC, Domenech E, Romagnoli M, Arduini A, Borras C, Pallardo FV, et al. Oral administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations in endurance performance. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(1):142–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Bell PG, McHugh MP, Stevenson E, Howatson G. The role of cherries in exercise and health. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(3):477–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Myburgh KH. Polyphenol supplementation: benefits for exercise performance or oxidative stress? Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 1):S57–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Burke L, Maughan R. Sports nutrition and therapy. Handbook of sports medicine and science: sports therapy services: organization and operations, International Olympic Committee. London: Wiley; 2012. p. 103–16.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  68. Shaw G, Lee-Barthel A, Ross ML, Wang B, Baar K. Vitamin C-enriched gelatin supplementation before intermittent activity augments collagen synthesis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;105(1):136–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. McKay AKA, Peeling P, Pyne DB, Welvaert M, Tee N, Leckey JJ, et al. Chronic adherence to a ketogenic diet modifies iron metabolism in elite athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;51(3):548–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Badenhorst CE, Dawson B, Cox GR, Laarakkers CM, Swinkels DW, Peeling P. Acute dietary carbohydrate manipulation and the subsequent inflammatory and hepcidin responses to exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015;115(12):2521–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Cairo G. Endurance anaemia, relevance to triathlon. In: Migliorini S, editor. Triathlon medicine. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Owens DJ, Allison R, Close GL. Vitamin D and the athlete: current perspectives and new challenges. Sports Med. 2018;48(Suppl 1):3–16.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Garthe I, Maughan RJ. Athletes and supplements: prevalence and perspectives. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(2):126–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Peeling P, Binnie MJ, Goods PSR, Sim M, Burke LM. Evidence-based supplements for the enhancement of athletic performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(2):178–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Burke LM, Peeling P. Methodologies for investigating performance changes with supplement use. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(2):159–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Burke LM. Practical issues in evidence-based use of performance supplements: supplement interactions, repeated use and individual responses. Sports Med. 2017;47(Suppl 1):79–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Martínez-Sanz JM, Sospedra I, Ortiz CM, Baladía E, Gil-Izquierdo A, Ortiz-Moncada R. Intended or unintended doping? A review of the presence of doping substances in dietary supplements used in sports. Nutrients. 2017;9(10):E1093.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Desbrow B, Leveritt M. Awareness and use of caffeine by athletes competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006;16(5):545–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. AIS Sports Supplement Framework. www.sportaus.gov.au/ais/nutrition/supplements

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, ACT, Australia

    Louise M. Burke

  2. Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Louise M. Burke

  3. Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia

    Gregory R. Cox

  4. Triathlon Australia, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia

    Gregory R. Cox

Authors
  1. Louise M. Burke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gregory R. Cox
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Louise M. Burke .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. International Triathlon Union ITU, Medical Committee Maison du Sport International, Lausanne, Switzerland

    Sergio Migliorini

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Burke, L.M., Cox, G.R. (2020). Nutrition Strategies for Triathlon. In: Migliorini, S. (eds) Triathlon Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22357-1_17

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22357-1_17

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-22356-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-22357-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation