Abstract
This book argues that the history of the EU advances in steps, starting from the founding EEC Treaty to the most recent developments, which include the Draft Accession Agreement (DAA) of the EU to the ECHR and UK-EU Withdrawal Agreement(s). Our belief is that, whist European integration proceeds through different stages and is a building block exercise, profound interconnectedness between Member States has been fostered. Yet, each country in Europe has experienced a fate of its own, which was triggered by internal political and economic crises and has fuelled Euroscepticism. The latter, rooted and framed by people’s national experiences, is an increasing sentiment. It is evident that the wave of Euroscepticism is spreading across the continent and no longer tied to small segments of society or extremist political parties. Hence, scholars argue that the EU project is exposed to greater public contestation, at time when Europe is challenged from North to South by economic and austerity measures and from East to West by migration and human rights concerns. We submit that particularly in this political and economic climate, the EU needs to rely on public support for its continued legitimacy more than ever before. This can be achieved by focusing the attention on values which are shared by individuals. Interestingly, the political climate that we are experiencing resembles the crisis of the European political order in the years between the two World Wars characterised by clashes of rival ideologies: Christianity and Islam, the social and the capitalist ideals and the emerging concept of European polity. The Second World War was a devastating event and the lessons that have been drawn are ‘that it is so difficult to appraise aggressive dictators, that democracies must maintain their unity and strength”.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
De Vries (2018a).
- 3.
Jervis (2003), p. 207.
- 4.
De Vries (2018a).
- 5.
Bickerton et al. (2015).
- 6.
Cappelletti et al. (1985), p. 4.
- 7.
This was due to the rejection of the Constitutional Treaty in France and the Netherlands following a referendum and the halt from the first referendum in Ireland in relation to the Treaty of Lisbon.
- 8.
Morano-Foadi and Andreadakis (2011), p. 596.
- 9.
On 17th January 2012, the European Commission launched infringement procedures against Hungary in relation to the age-limit for compulsory retirement of judges, prosecutors and notaries, and the protection of individuals with respect to the processing of personal data and the free movement of the same data. See cases C-286/12 Commission v Hungary (2012) and C-288/12 Commission v Hungary (2014).
- 10.
Usherwood and Startin (2013), p. 1.
- 11.
European Commission 2014.
- 12.
- 13.
European Council 2016.
- 14.
European Council 2017.
- 15.
European Commission 2016.
- 16.
European Commission, White Paper on the Future of Europe, 2017.
- 17.
European Commission, White Paper on the Future of Europe: Five Scenarios, 2017.
- 18.
European Commission Press Release 2017.
- 19.
European Council 2019.
- 20.
European Parliament 2019.
- 21.
European Commission, A Blueprint for Action, 2019.
- 22.
European Commission Communication, 2019.
- 23.
European Commission Press Release 2019.
- 24.
European Commission Statement 2019.
- 25.
Hogic (2019)
- 26.
Nugent and Rhinard (2019), pp. 203–204.
- 27.
- 28.
- 29.
- 30.
On the development of the doctrine of direct effect and supremacy, see C-26/62 Van Gend en Loos (1963) and C-6/64 Costa (1964).
- 31.
Interesting the views of Bingham J on the advantages enjoyed by the Court of Justice. See ApS Samex (1983) paras 1055-1056.
- 32.
Burley and Mattli (1993).
- 33.
- 34.
- 35.
- 36.
Tallberg (2000), p. 848.
- 37.
See C-4/73 Nold (1974); C-44/79 Hauer (1979); C-11/70 Internationale Handelsgesellschaft (1970).
- 38.
Frowein et al. (1985), p. 300.
- 39.
For example, in the sphere of external affairs, which comprise diverse EU activities, such as trade, security policy and defence policy. This area had remained in the hands of Member States for much of the integration process. However, competences have since gradually been transferred to the EU. First, in relation to economic trade from 1957, then the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) was added to the Maastricht Treaty, under the so-called (intergovernmental) second pillar; then, the Lisbon Treaty has created the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy as its leading diplomat. A limited policy in defence co-operation is now under the Common Security and Defence Policy. Conflict exists as specific institutional interests of the EP, Commission and Council ‘are often at loggerheads with a common interest to maximize power over bargaining and to ‘speak with a single voice’ in the international realm’. For further detail, see Hartlapp (2018).
- 40.
Luis Da Cruz Vilaca (2014), pp. 115–116.
- 41.
Afilalo and Patterson (2012), p. 297.
- 42.
Introduced by Art 2 EU and 17-22 EC of the Treaty of Maastricht.
- 43.
Yong (2018), pp. 115–116.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
Ross (2010), pp. 30–31.
- 46.
Interview 1, Luxembourg (13/12/2010); Interview 3, Luxembourg (13/12/2010); Interview 7, Luxembourg (14/12/2010); Interview 13, Luxembourg (15/12/2010).
- 47.
Morano-Foadi and Andreadakis (2011), pp. 595 et seq.
- 48.
Scharpf (2009), p. 181.
- 49.
C-184/99 Grzelczyk (2001), para 31.
- 50.
C-333/13 Dano (2014).
- 51.
C-67/14 Alimanovic (2015).
- 52.
Yong (2018), p. 130.
- 53.
C-216/18 PPU Minister for Justice and Equality (2018).
- 54.
Von Bogdandy (2019), p. 8.
- 55.
- 56.
Lenaerts (2017), p. 805.
- 57.
Lenaerts (2007), pp. 1635–1636.
- 58.
Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2016).
- 59.
Opinion 2/2013 (2014).
- 60.
Interview 2B, Luxembourg (15/04/2016); Interview 4D, Luxembourg (18/04/2016).
- 61.
Lambrecht (2015), p. 185.
- 62.
View of AG Kokott (2014), para 280.
- 63.
- 64.
C-399/11 Melloni (2013), para 60.
- 65.
See, for example, C-617/10 Fransson (2013); C-418/11 Texdata (2013); C-105/14 Taricco (2015); C-42/17 M.A.S. and M.B (2017).
- 66.
Di Francesco Maesa (2018), p. 52. See also C-399/11 Melloni (2013), paras 57-64, and particularly para 58.
- 67.
For an overview, see Van de Heyning (2011), p. 73.
- 68.
Lambrecht (2015), p. 187; See also Appl. No 20665/92 Markopoulou (1994), para 4; Appl. No 22225/93 EM v Greece (1993), para 4.
- 69.
See Appl. No 43546/02 EB v France (2008), para 49.
- 70.
Opinion 2/13 (2014), para 194.
- 71.
Joined cases C-411/10 N.S. (2011) and C-493/10 M.E. (2012), paras 78-88. See also on this point, Appl. No 30696/09 MSS v Belgium and Greece (2011), paras 358, 360 and 367.
- 72.
Appl. No 29217/12 Tarakhel (2014).
- 73.
As in the cases of MSS and Tarakhel.
- 74.
Appl. No 45036/98 Bosphorus (2006), paras 152-153.
- 75.
It has been suggested by our interviewees that such a clause should be included. See Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2019).
- 76.
Lambrecht (2015), p. 188.
- 77.
Interview 2B, Luxembourg (15/04/2016).
- 78.
Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Georgia, Lithuania, The Netherlands, San Marino, Slovenia and Ukraine. For a list of the ratification, see Chart of Signatures and Ratifications of Treaty 214.
- 79.
View of AG Kokott (2014), para 140.
- 80.
Lambrecht (2015), p. 188.
- 81.
See C-6/64 Costa (1964); C-11/70 Internationale Handelsgesellschaft (1970), para 3 and C-399/11 Melloni (2013), para 59. See also Opinion 1/91 (1991), para 21 and Opinion 1/09 (2011), para 65.
- 82.
C-26/62 Van Gend en Loos (1963) para 12 and Opinion 1/09 (2011), para 65.
- 83.
Willem van Rossem (2013), p. 15.
- 84.
Opinion 1/91 (1991), para 35.
- 85.
Ibid para 42.
- 86.
C-459/03 Mox Plant (2006).
- 87.
Ibid para 154.
- 88.
Joined Cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P Kadi (2008), paras 318-326.
- 89.
Council Regulation 881/2002, which provides, inter alia, for the freezing of the funds and other economic resources of those individuals and entities that also appear in a list annexed to the regulation and are regularly updated on the basis of successive UN resolutions.
- 90.
Kadi para 317.
- 91.
Ibid para 316.
- 92.
For further discussion on this issue, see Willem van Rossem (2013), p. 17.
- 93.
Magen (2009), p. 63.
- 94.
See Joined Cases C-402/05 and 415/05 P Kadi (2008), in particular paras 281–283, 331 et seq. (Kadi I); Joined Cases C-584/10 P, C-593/10 P and C-595/10 P Commission and UK v Kadi (2013) (Kadi II).
- 95.
Editorial Comments (2016), pp. 598–599.
- 96.
Opinion 2/13 paras 178, 183, 191, 194, 197, 199. See also Halberstam (2015), p. 120.
- 97.
Peers (2014).
- 98.
Douglas-Scott (2014).
- 99.
O’Neill (2014).
- 100.
European Court of Human Rights 2015, 6.
- 101.
Ibid.
- 102.
- 103.
UK House of Commons 2014.
- 104.
Interview 1A, Luxembourg (15/04/2016), Interview 5E, Luxembourg (18/04/2016) and Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2016).
- 105.
Interview 4D, Luxemburg (18/04/2016), Interview 5E, Luxembourg (18/04/2016) and Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2016).
- 106.
Interview 1A, Luxembourg (15/04/2016), Interview 2B, Luxemburg (15/04/2016), Interview 5E, Luxembourg (18/04/2016) and Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2016).
- 107.
Interview 2B, Luxemburg (15/04/2016), Interview 4D, Luxemburg (18/04/2016) and Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2016).
- 108.
- 109.
For example, in the UK Directive 2004/38 has been transposed into the Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations 2006, which was amended by Statutory Instruments (SI) 2009/1117 and SI 2011/1247. Then this Regulations have been amended following binding citizenship cases of the CJEU.
- 110.
Interview 5E, Luxembourg (18/04/2016).
- 111.
Interview 6F, Luxembourg (19/04/2016).
- 112.
Usherwood and Startin (2013).
- 113.
Bickerton et al. (2015).
- 114.
Alter (2001), Ch 1.
- 115.
- 116.
Interview B, Brussels (21/6/12).
- 117.
De Londras and Dzehtsiarou (2018), p. xxv.
- 118.
Kosař (2017), p. 113.
- 119.
- 120.
Interview I, Strasbourg (18/6/2012); Interview IV, Strasbourg (19/6/2012); Interview VI, Strasbourg (20/6/2012).
- 121.
Helfer (2008), p. 126.
- 122.
- 123.
Carozza (2003), p. 39.
- 124.
- 125.
- 126.
- 127.
Carozza (2003), p. 75.
- 128.
Appl. No 15318/89 Loizidou (1995), para 27.
- 129.
See De Londras and Dzehtsiarou (2015).
- 130.
Tsarapatsanis (2015), p. 684.
- 131.
Polakiewicz (2016a).
- 132.
Interview I, Strasbourg (18/6/2012).
- 133.
- 134.
Cruz Villalón (2012), pp. 9–10.
- 135.
See, for example, Interview 4D, Luxembourg (18/04/2016).
- 136.
Interview 1, Luxembourg (13/12/2010).
- 137.
See C-216/18 PPU Minister for Justice and Equality (2018).
- 138.
The acts in question are: European Commission (2016), Opinion regarding the Rule of Law in Poland, C(2016) 3500 final; European Commission (2018), recital 3.
- 139.
Chancellery of the Prime Minister of Poland (2018), para 166.
- 140.
European Commission Communication 2019, 2.
- 141.
Ibid 5.
- 142.
European Council (2019) European Council Meeting (17 and 18 October 2019) – Conclusions. General Secretariat of the Council, Brussels, EUCO 23/19 CO EUR 22 CONCL 7.
- 143.
For example, from 1970 to 1985, the then European Community experienced the so-called ‘Eurosclerosis’, where national interests prevailed over common interests. Although the veto by Member States’ representatives in the Council blocked legislation, individual challenges on the conformity of national measures to EU law facilitated integration through case law. These early days were marked by periods of crisis due to a clear tension between MS’s sovereignty issues and a supranational dimension adopted by the Commission. It was only after the French President De Gaulle retreated from active politics in 1972 that integration was truly revived.
- 144.
- 145.
Luis Da Cruz Vilaca (2014).
- 146.
Council of Europe 2019, 7. The EU is already an active participant in the Council of Europe, including with the Commission as observer in the Venice Commission or European Commission for Democracy through Law, which is an advisory body under the Council of Europe composed of independent experts.
- 147.
Ibid.
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Morano-Foadi, S., Andreadakis, S. (2020). Current Obstacles and Future Challenges of Integration in Europe. In: Protection of Fundamental Rights in Europe. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42367-4_6
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