Abstract
This chapter examines the disappearing Arctic as a criminal anthroposcene, one frozen in the imagination by Holocene-bred understandings of (in)security even as it is currently being reshaped by the effects of global warming in the Anthropocene. Due to the rapid melting of ice, the Northwest Passage has become increasingly accessible to Arctic cruise ships. For affluent passengers, the Arctic is staged as a site of last chance tourism and plotted in itineraries as a series of overlapping chronotopes of (in)security. Because such contemporary Arctic expeditions follow in the wake of European explorers, these chronotopes emerge at the intersection of colonialism and climate change. Aboard the cruise ship, passenger security is prioritized in ways that can introduce new insecurities or amplify existing ones for local Arctic inhabitants.
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Change history
09 March 2021
This book was inadvertently published with incorrect authorship for each chapter. This has now been updated in all the chapters. The co-authored chapters now mirror the cover authorship, where ‘with’ is used rather than ‘and’ (as in Anita Lam with Matthew Tegelberg).
Notes
- 1.
Because perfect security is understood as an unattainable state (Zedner 2009), or a state only attainable in death (Hamilton 2013), security tends to also imply insecurity. Even when one appears more visibly than the other, security and insecurity are invoked simultaneously. For this reason, we refer to (in)security in our analysis of chronotopes .
- 2.
European explorers have staged their ‘discovery’ of the ruins of ancient civilizations. These stagings have functioned as powerful tropes within imperial travel and exploration writings (Pratt 1992). Enticing global tourists to follow the footsteps of European ‘discoverers,’ such colonial travel narratives have been consistently reproduced by tourism promoters from Southeast Asia to Central America (e.g., Tegelberg 2010).
- 3.
Drawing on the work of Erving Goffman (1959), there is an extensive body of literature in critical tourism studies that explores the role of the stage (e.g., MacCannell 1973) and how performances are produced and staged within tourist spaces (e.g., Edensor 2000, 2001). Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter to engage with this literature, it is worth noting that most of the scholarly attention to staging practices in tourism studies has centred on encounters between human actors (e.g., the tourists and hosts that meet and form perceptions of one another in tourist space). In this chapter, we have complicated the stage , as a conceptual metaphor, by drawing attention to the role played by nonhuman actors in the staging of tourism.
- 4.
Elsewhere , Holley and Shearing (2017) have argued that the Anthropocene requires a fundamental rethinking of safety and security, following Shearing’s (2015) proposal to reconfigure criminology as security-ology in its engagements with the Anthropocene (for a critique of Shearing’s proposal, see Floyd 2015). We make no claims about the centrality of security-ology or security studies for the future of criminology in this chapter. Instead, we examine chronotopic representations of (in)security as they relate to a tour operator’s marketing of passenger security aboard an Arctic cruise. We recognize that this is a very specific assemblage of image and narrative in relation to Arctic (in)security. However, we prefer to proceed by way of a concrete analysis rather than by theoretical generalization because theory alone is not an adequate substitute for empirical analysis.
- 5.
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to consider how climate security has emerged in contemporary geopolitics as a response to living in the Anthropocene (see, e.g., Dalby 2014, 2016). This chapter is also not focused on the definition or governance of environmental security (see, e.g., Brisman et al. 2018; Floyd 2015; Holley and Shearing 2017; Holley et al. 2018).
- 6.
While tourists have long been motivated by a desire to visit vulnerable and vanishing attractions, tourism scholars and promoters have only recently turned their attention to how such interest has been heightened by global warming and the impacts of anthropogenic climate change (Dawson et al. 2011).
- 7.
For example, Last Chance to See was a BBC radio documentary series written and presented by Douglas Adams and Mark Carwardine. Broadcast in 1989, it followed the two men as they travelled to various remote locations in search of encounters with species facing extinction . The notion of a ‘last chance to see’ was further explored in an accompanying book and a follow-up television series.
- 8.
AC is used as a shorthand reference to Adventure Canada.
- 9.
To our knowledge, these are the six major cruise line operators that currently offer trips to the Canadian Arctic : Adventure Canada (with passengers aboard the Ocean Endeavour), Silversea (Silver Cloud), Compagnie du Ponant (Le Boreal), National Geographic Expeditions (National Geographic Explorer), One Ocean Expeditions (Resolute), Aurora Expeditions (Greg Mortimer) and Quark Expeditions (Ultramarine).
- 10.
By 2009, it was estimated that the cruise tourism industry had experienced an 1800% rate of growth since 1970, with a vast majority of leisure-based travel in the polar regions taking place aboard cruise vessels (Lück et al. 2010).
- 11.
A representative from Adventure Canada currently sits on the executive committee of the Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (https://www.aeco.no/about-aeco/)
- 12.
Methodologically, close textual readings are unable to capture what a tour operator might actually discuss with actual passengers aboard the cruise. As such, these readings are most suited for demonstrating how the tour operator promotes its cruise to prospective passengers.
- 13.
Produced by the Discovery Channel and also broadcast on the Smithsonian Channel (US), and Quest (UK), Mighty Cruise Ships featured the Ocean Endeavour in episode 5 of its second season in 2017.
- 14.
Expedition cruise line operators, such as Adventure Canada, can be differentiated from luxury cruise line operators, such as the former Crystal Serenity. Expedition cruises tend to operate with a smaller number of human passengers and with a potentially different fuel source. In 2019, the Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators, for instance, banned its members from using and carrying heavy fuel oil (HFO) in the Arctic (Sevunts 2019). This self-imposed ban comes ahead of the International Maritime Organization’s 2020 ban on the use and carriage of HFO by ships operating in the Arctic. Accounting for 80% of all fuels used in maritime shipping (ICCT 2017), HFO is the dirtiest and cheapest marine fuel. Not only is it toxic, its extreme viscosity means that it breaks down more slowly in marine environments than other fuels, especially in colder regions like the Arctic.
- 15.
Nowhere in Adventure Canada’s promotion does it suggest that the Northwest Passage is a risky environment to traverse because of the region’s lack of maritime infrastructure. While placing emphasis on shifting sea ice and weather conditions allows Adventure Canada to align itself with the historical concerns of Arctic explorers, in whose footsteps they purportedly follow, it a disingenuous marketing manoeuvre that sidesteps other risks in the Canadian Arctic, some of which may be connected to Adventure Canada’s cruising . As Bourquin (2015) has noted, travel in Canadian Arctic waters comes with overlapping insecurities: of the 10% of Canadian Arctic waters that have been charted, the existing charts have been deemed unsafe and dated. Support services, such as navigation aids, telecommunications and oil spill response plans, are minimal even though they are required for safe shipping in the region. Currently, bandwidth capabilities to accommodate reliable and safe maritime communication are inadequate. These issues ought to be foremost in Adventure Canada’s planning, given their disastrous 2010 outing into the Northwest Passage. In 2010, the Adventure Canada ship, carrying 128 passengers and 69 crewmembers, hit an underwater rock shelf near Kugluktuk, Nunavut. The company was fined nearly half a million dollars in 2017 for environmental damage caused by the breach of 13 tanks, carrying fuel, water and sludge, during the incident. In response, Adventure Canada attempted, rather unsuccessfully, to sue the Canadian government for $13 million over what they claimed was ‘a blank spot on the map’—namely, the unmarked shelf that their ship hit (Thompson 2018). Discovered in 2007, the rock shelf had yet to make it the ship’s charts. As an increasing number of vessels travel the Northwest Passage, including a growing number of commercial cruise ships in addition to cargo ships and tankers, the lack of maritime infrastructure, particularly in relation to oil spill response, creates potentially devastating ecological risks in the region.
- 16.
In physics, the black hole is a zero in the equations of general relativity, and the energy of the vacuum is a zero in the mathematics of quantum theory. The Big Bang—the origins of the universe as well as the clue to the future of the universe—is notably a zero in both theories (Seife 2000).
- 17.
For example, we can consider the immediate aftermath of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Not long after the attacks, the office of former mayor of New York City, Rudolf Giuliani, explained that the site of the World Trade Center’s destruction (i.e., ‘ground zero’ in the terrorist attacks) ‘was a crime scene, not a tourist attraction’ (quoted in Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 2003: 12), and banned amateur photographers from documenting the ruins.
- 18.
Greenland Tourism is not alone in thinking about climate change in tandem with nuclear threats. For example, the Doomsday Clock was set at two minutes to midnight in 2019 and reset to 100 seconds to midnight in 2020, in light of the twin threats of climate change and nuclear warfare to planetary security (Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2019, 2020).
- 19.
On the 24-hour clock, zero hour marks midnight, which functions as the end of one day and the beginning of the next. This measurement of clock time is also expressed in military time, continental time, railway time and the international standard notation of time.
- 20.
As another Arctic expedition tour, Adventure Canada ran excursions explicitly titled ‘Arctic Safari.’
- 21.
The polar bear encounter is also crucial to the design of an Arctic safari tour by rival company, Arctic Kingdom. Arctic Kingdom has named its numerous Arctic safari tours in relation to polar bears, such as ‘Polar bear mother and newborn cubs’ safari , ‘Spring polar bears and icebergs of Baffin’ safari , ‘Polar bears and glaciers of Baffin Island’ safari , ‘Polar bear migration fly-in’ safari and ‘Nanuvik polar bear cabin migration’ safari , among others.
- 22.
The guns are not simply ornamental accessories for the bear monitor. They have been used to protect humans from polar bears, demonstrating the lengths that cruise operators will go to protect passengers against the wildlife they have come to see. In July 2018, a polar bear was shot dead by a polar bear monitor working for a cruise ship visiting Svalbard, an Arctic archipelago in Norway. Upon landing to scout the area, one polar bear guard was attacked and injured by a polar bear, justifying the second guard to kill the bear in an act of self-defence. Photographs of the dead polar bear were circulated online, prompting criticism of Arctic wildlife tourism (Associated Press 2018).
- 23.
Dawson et al. (2011) have observed how last chance tourism emphasizes large, charismatic species. This draws attention away from less charismatic species, such as the Arctic cod, even though these species are critically endangered and closer to extinction than some charismatic megafauna.
- 24.
For a critical account of the Canadian government’s policy towards the Inuit during this period and its enduring legacy for Inuit families, see Tester and Kulchyski (1994).
- 25.
Speaking to the Qikiqtani Inuit Association (2013b: 29) about his experiences as a child in Pond Inlet, Kaujak Kanajak recalls: ‘We weren’t allowed to draw dogs or tell stories about them, anything that had something to do with being Inuk, about iglus or anything, as soon as we came [to Pond Inlet].’
- 26.
In response to John Rae’s (1875) account of British cannibalism among members of the Franklin crew, Charles Dickens (1854: 362) argued, without any evidence, that ‘no man can, with any show of reason, undertake to affirm that this sad remnant of Franklin’s gallant band were not set upon and slain by the Esquimaux themselves.’ So incomprehensible was the possibility of cannibalism among British crewmembers that Dickens began a mythic reimagining of the Inuit as cannibalistic Others, so as to not tarnish the Franklin expedition as a powerful symbol of empire. The legacy of Dickens’ negative stereotyping of the Inuit has been devastating (McGoogan 2017).
- 27.
While Arctic sea ice undergoes temporal and spatial fluxes from summer to winter, it is, on average, in long-term decline due to climate change ’s effects (Serreze 2011; Stroeve et al. 2007; Vardy 2014). In its Arctic Report Card for 2019, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency scientists registered the second highest levels of decline in the extent and thickness of sea ice cover since they began keeping satellite records of Arctic ice cover in 1978 (NOAA 2019).
- 28.
Adventure Canada lists Parks Canada as a partner (https://www.adventurecanada.com/partnerships).
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Lam, A., Tegelberg, M. (2020). Passenger Security and Spacetime: Touring the Northwest Passage in the Wake of Colonialism and Climate Change. In: Criminal Anthroposcenes. Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46004-4_6
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