Abstract
When talking about reference, our immediate reaction is to ask what is referred to, by whom, and how. Reference can be made in writing or in speech; in the former case, I can “refer” by putting together a list of “references” which will explain those references that are not immediately clear from the written context. In speech, by contrast, we need other means of referring (e.g., by quoting, by ostensive pointing, by the use of indexicals, by innuendo, by relying on the context, and so on). What this chapter wants to do is to connect reference with the idea that all speech acts, including those having to do with referring, are situated, that is to say, their explanation and understanding happens, so to speak, from the “outside” (the context) inward, rather than from the “inside” (the mind of the speaker) outward. The corollary of such a view is that speech acts, as such, do not exist; consequently, reference always happens in the form of a situated “pointing,” where the activity of referring always is a “situated” one, possible only in a total context of understanding: “the whole in which the components work” (Weigand 2006, pp. 59–87; quoted Capone 2010, p. 2863).
This is a revised and expanded version of an article originally published in the Journal of Pragmatics 41:10, November 2010.
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Notes
- 1.
The two “Joes” got to play a prominent, albeit rather ancillary, role during the 2008 US presidential campaign. Joe Sixpack in particular was thought of as representing the honest-to-God American worker who did not believe in all the political bullshit around him, and preferred his six-pack of beers to the lofty arguments of the politicians.
- 2.
Cf. “The most powerful—and in some quarters, most hated—brand image of the century, the Marlboro Man stands worldwide as the ultimate American cowboy and masculine trademark, helping establish Marlboro as the best-selling cigarette in the world.”
The Advertising Century. http://adage.com/century/icon01.html. Accessed on September 26, 2009.
- 3.
Retrieved from Wikipedia, 26 September 2009. For a recent perspective on the Turing test, see French 2012.
- 4.
Similarly, the famous Danish structuralist Louis Hjelmslev, founder of the Copenhagen School known as “glossematics,” has always claimed that the task of the linguist is limited to providing a description that is as exhaustive and simple as possible, while not containing any internal contradictions (Hjelmslev’s famous “three principles,” 1954).
- 5.
Compare Chomsky’s early attacks on the venerated US psychologist B. F. Skinner, who for many became the very icon of a behaviorist approach to human cognition and psychology.
- 6.
As when in Gen. 3, Adam is said to have “known” Eve. (Hence, the expression “carnal knowledge” for sexual intercourse).
For a literary illustration, recall Heinrich Heine’s famous poem about the Loreley:
Ich weiss nicht was soll es bedeuten
Dass ich so traurig bin;
Ein Märchen aus uralten Zeiten
Es will mir nicht aus dem Sinn.
Here, “sense” and “meaning” are beautifully distinguished: The poet knows the “meaning” of the words of the fairy tale, but this meaning does not make “sense.”
- 7.
Cf. the Scholastic adage “Nothing is in the mind that not has been experienced by the senses” ( nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu; St. Thomas Aquinas De veritate 2, 3, 15; 2008).
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Mey, J. (2016). Modular, Cellular, Integral: A Pragmatic Elephant?. In: Capone, A., Mey, J. (eds) Interdisciplinary Studies in Pragmatics, Culture and Society. Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12616-6_13
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