Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Introduction to Green Roof Ecosystems

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Green Roof Ecosystems

Part of the book series: Ecological Studies ((ECOLSTUD,volume 223))

Abstract

Green roofs have been heralded as a “sustainable building practice” in cities throughout the world as one response to mounting environmental stresses. A range of stressors plus erosion of aesthetics and human well being in urban areas have initiated policies and practices often with incentives to develop green infrastructure such as green roofs. They provide a suite of public and private benefits most of which map onto services generally provided by the ecosystem. Green roof development imbeds in environmental design processes and is constrained by both human and environmental factors.

As relatively small, simple, anthropogenic ecosystems, green roofs relate to several existing conceptual and applied ecological ideas. Understanding and applying from ecology and ecosystem studies, ecological engineering, managed ecosystems, construction ecology, urban ecology, landscape ecology, restoration ecology, reconciliation ecology, soil ecology and community ecology show green roof ecosystems can be created to cycle energy and nutrients. Furthermore, green roofs can be constructed to model an ecosystem and may provide a setting for testing ecological concepts. This book takes an ecosystems approach to describing a large number of interactions on green roofs placing them in the total human ecosystem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alberti M (ed) (2008) Advances in urban ecology: integrating humans and ecological processes in urban ecosystems. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen THF (2002) Applying the principles of ecological emergence to building design and construction. In: Kibert C, Sendzimir J, Guy G (eds) Construction ecology: nature as the basis for green buildings, Spon, London, pp 108–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen THF, Starr T (1982) Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological complexity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Ampim P, Sloan J, Cabrerra R, Harp D, Jaber F (2010) Green roof growing substrates: types, ingredients, composition and properties. J Environ Hortic 28(4): 244–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Antle J, Capalbo J, Elliott E, Hunt H, Mooney S, Paustian K (2001) Research needs for understanding and predicting the behavior of managed ecosystems: lessons form the study of agroecosystems. Ecosystems 4:723–735

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates A, Mackay R, Greswell R, Sadler J (2009) SWITCH in Birmingham, UK: experimental investigation of the ecological and hydrological performance of extensive green roofs. Rev of Env Sci Biotech 8:295–300

    Google Scholar 

  • Berardi U, Ghaffarian-Hoseini A, Ghaffarian-Hoseini A (2013) State-of-the-art analysis of the environmental benefits of green roofs. Appl Energy 115:411–428

    Google Scholar 

  • Berndtsson J (2010) Green roof performance towards management of runoff water quantity and quality: a review. Ecol Eng 36(4):351–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Berndtsson J, Bengtsson L, Jinno K (2009) Runoff water quality from intensive and extensive vegetated roofs. Ecol Eng 35(3):369–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Berryman A (1989) The conceptual foundations of ecological dynamics. Bull Ecol Soci Am 70:230–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Bianchini F, Hewage K (2012) How green are the green roofs? Lifecycle analysis of green roof materials. Build Environ 48:57–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Blandin P (2013) Ecology and biodiversity at the beginning of the twenty-first century: towards a new paradigm? In: Schwarz A, Jax K (eds) Ecology revisited reflecting on concepts, advancing science. Springer, New York. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9744-617

    Google Scholar 

  • Brenneisen S (2006) Space for urban wildlife: designing green roofs as habitats in Switzerland. Urban Habitats 4. http://www.urbanhabitats.org/v04n01/wildlife_full.html. Accessed 19 March 2015

  • Buist R (2008) Going for organics. Living Archit Monit 10(1):16–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler C, Orians C (2011) Sedum cools soil and can improve neighboring plant performance during water deficit on a green roof. Ecol Eng 37(11):1796–1803

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter T, Fowler L (2008) Establishing green roof infrastructure through environmental policy instruments. Environ Manage 42(3):151–164

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter T, Keeler A (2008) Life-cycle cost-benefit analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems. J Environ Manage 87(3):350–363

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clewell A, Aronson J (2013) Ecological restoration, 2nd edn. Island Press, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Coffman R, Waite T (2011) Vegetated roofs as reconciled habitats: rapid assays beyond mere species counts. Urban Habitats 6(1) http://www.urbanhabitats.org/v06n01/vegetatedroofs_full.html. Accessed 19 March 2015

  • Coleman D, Odum E, Crossley D (1992) Soil biology, soil ecology, and global change. Biol Fertil Soils 14:104–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman D, Crossley D Jr, Hendrix P (2004) Fundamentals of soil ecology, 2nd edn. Elsevier, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Connelly M, Hodgson M (2008) Sound transmission loss of extensive green roofs-Field test results. Can Acoust 36(3):74–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook-Patton S, Bauerle T (2012) Potential benefits of plant diversity on vegetated roofs: a literature review. J Environ Manage 106:85–92

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coulson S, Bullock J, Stevenson M, Pywell R (2001) Colonization of grassland by sown species dispersal versus microsite limitation in responses to management. J Appl Ecol 38(1):204–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Cripps C, Eddington L (2005) Distribution of mycorrhizal types among alpine vascular plant families on the Beartooth Plateau, Rocky Mountains, USA, in reference to large-scale patterns in arctic-alpine habitats. Arct Antarct Alp Res 37(2):177–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Cushman JC, Borland AM (2002) Induction of Crassulacean acid metabolism by water limitation. Plant Cell Environ 25(2):295–310

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daykin K, Benjamin L, Pantiel M (2013) The professional design guide to green roofs. Timber Press, Portland

    Google Scholar 

  • Doran J, Zeiss M (2000) Soil health and sustainability: managing the biotic component of soil health. Appl Soil Ecol 15:3–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunnett N, Nolan A (2004) The effect of substrate depth and supplementary watering on the growth of nine herbaceous perennials in a semi-extensive green roof. Acta Hortic 643:305–309

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunnett N, Nagase A, Hallam A (2008a) The dynamics of planted and colonising species on a green roof over six growing seasons 2001–2006: influence of substrate depth. Urban Ecosyst 11(2008):373–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunnett N, Nagase A, Booth R, Grime J (2008b) Influence of vegetation composition on runoff in two simulated green roof experiments. Urban Ecosyst 11:385–398

    Google Scholar 

  • Dvorak BD (2011) Comparative analysis of green roof guidelines and standards in Europe and North America. J Green Build 6(2):170–191. doi:10.3992/jgb.6.2.170

    Google Scholar 

  • Dvorak BD, Volder A (2010) Green roof vegetation for North American ecoregions: a literature review. Lands Urban Plan 96(4):197–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Dvorak BD, Volder A (2012) Plant establishment on unirrigated green roof modules in a subtropical climate. AoB Plants. doi:10.1093/aobpla/pls049

    Google Scholar 

  • Emilsson T, Berndtsson JC, et al (2007) Effect of using conventional and controlled release fertiliser on nutrient runoff from various vegetated roof systems. Ecol Eng 29(3):260–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Enright C (2013) Green roofs are growing: standards support sustainability. Standardization News May/June. http://www.astm.org/sn/features/green-roofs-are-growing-mj13.html. Accessed 10 Feb 2014

  • Felson A, Pickett STA (2005) Designed experiments: new approaches to studying urban ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 3:549–556

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng C, Meng Q, Zhang YF (2010) Theoretical and experimental analysis of the energy balance of extensive green roofs. Energy Build 42:959–965

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau (Landscape, Research, Development and Construction Society) (2002) Guideline for the planning, execution, and Upkeep of Green-roof Sites. http://www.fll.de/shop/english-publications/green-roofing-guideline-2008-file-download.html. Accessed 19 March 2015

  • Forman RTT, Godron M (1986) Landscape ecology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis R, Lorimer J (2011) Urban reconciliation ecology: the potential of living roofs and walls. J Environ Manage 92:1429–1437

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedrich C (2008) Don’t call it dirt! Living Archit Monit 10(1):16–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaffin SR, Rosenzweig C et al (2008) Variations in New York city’s urban heat island strength over time and space. Theor Appl Climatol 94(1–2):1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaston K (ed) (2010) Urban ecology. Ecological reviews. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Getter K, Rowe DB (2006) The role of extensive green roofs in sustainable development. Hort Sci 41(5):1276–1285

    Google Scholar 

  • Getter K, Rowe DB, Cregg B (2009) Solar radiation intensity influences extensive green roof plant communities. Urban For Urban Green 8(4):269–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Gobster P, Barro S (2000) Negotiating nature: making restoration happen in an urban park context. In: Gobster P, Hull R (eds) Restoring nature: perspectives from the social sciences and humanities. Island Press, Washington DC, pp 185–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Green Roofs for Healthy Cities (GRHC) (2006a) Green roof design 101 introductory course, 2nd edn. Cardinal Group, Toronto

    Google Scholar 

  • Green Roofs for Healthy Cities (GRHC) (2006b) Case studies of green roof regulations in North America. Available via Docstoc. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/40655588/2006---Case-Studies-of-Green-Roof-Regulations-in-North-America. Accessed 1 Jan 2014

  • Gregoire B, Clausen J (2011) Effect of a modular extensive green roof on stormwater runoff and water quality. Ecol Eng 37(6):963–969

    Google Scholar 

  • He H, Jim C (2010) Simulation of thermodynamic transmission in the green roof ecosystem. Ecol Model 221(24):2949–2958

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgs E (2012) Changing nature: novel ecosystems, intervention, and knowing when to step back. In: Turner M, Weinstein R (eds) Sustainability science. Springer, New York, pp 383–398

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs R (2004) Restoration ecology: the challenge of social values and expectations. Front Ecol Environ 2:43–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs R (2007) Setting effective and realistic restoration goals: key directions for research. Restor Ecol 15(2):354–357

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs R, Higgs E, Hall C (2013) Novel ecosystems: intervening in the new ecological world order. Wiley-Blackwell, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper D, Chapin F III, Ewel J, Hector A, Inchausti P, Lavorel S, Lawton J, Lodge D, Loreau M, Naeem S, Schmid B, Setälä H, Symstad A, Vandermeer J, Wardle D (2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol Monogr 75(1):3–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeffries P, Barea J (2001) Arbuscular Mycorrhizzae: a key component of sustainable plant-soil ecosytems. Mycota 9:95–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Jim C, He H (2010) Coupling heat flux dynamics with meteorological conditions in the green roof ecosystem. Ecol Eng 36(8):1052–1063

    Google Scholar 

  • John J (2013) Assessment of arbuscular Mycorrhizae fungi in a green roof system. MS Thesis, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia

    Google Scholar 

  • Jorgensen S, Odum H, Brown M (2004) Emergy and exergy stored in genetic information. Ecol Model 178(1):11–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahn P Jr (1999) The human relationship with nature: development and culture. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan R, Kaplan S (eds) (1989) The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Kay J (2002) On complexity theory, exergy, and industrial ecology. In: Kibert CJ, Sendzimir J, Guy GB (eds) Construction ecology: nature as the basis for green buildings. Spon, London, pp 72–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Kibert CJ, Sendzimir J, Guy GB (eds) (2002) Construction ecology: nature as the basis for green buildings. Spon, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Köhler M, Keeley M (2005) The green roof tradition in Germany: the example of Berlin. In: Hoffman L, McDonough W (eds) Green roofs: ecological design and construction. Schiffer, New York, pp 108–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Loreau M, Naeem S, Inchausti P, Bengtsson J, Grime J, Hector A, Wardle D (2001) Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: current knowledge and future challenges. Science 294(5543):804–808

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Louv R (2012) The nature principle: reconnecting with life in a virtual age. Algonquin Books Chapel Hill, NC

    Google Scholar 

  • Luckett K (2009) Green roof construction and maintenance. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundholm J, Richardson P (2010) Habitat analogues for reconciliation ecology in urban and industrial environments. J Appl Ecol 47(5):966–499

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundholm J, MacIvor J, MacDougall Z, Ranalli M (2010) Plant species and functional group combinations affect green roof ecosystem functions. PLoS One 5(3). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009677

    Google Scholar 

  • MacIvor J, Lundholm J (2011) Insect species composition and diversity on intensive green roofs and adjacent level-ground habitats. Urban Ecosyst 14(2):225–241

    Google Scholar 

  • MacMahon J (1998) Empirical and theoretical ecology as a basis for restoration: an ecological success story. In: Groffman P, Pace M (eds) Successes, limitations and frontiers in ecosystem science. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp 220–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Madre F, Vergnes A, Machon N, Clergeau P (2014) Green roofs as habitats for wild plant species in urban landscapes: first insights from a large-scale sampling. Landsc Urban Plan 122:100–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Metselaar K (2012) Water retention and evapotranspiration of green roofs and possible natural vegetation types. Res Conserv Recyc 64:49–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being, vol 5. Island Press, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitsch W, Jorgensen S (2004) Ecological engineering and ecosystem restoration. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Molineux C, Fentiman C, Gange A (2009) Characterising alternative recycled waste materials for use as green roof growing media in the UK. Ecol Eng 35(10):1507–1513

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan S, Celik S, Retzlaff W (2012) Green roof storm-water runoff quantity and quality. J Environ Eng 139(4):471–478

    Google Scholar 

  • Naveh Z (2000) The total human ecosystem: integrating ecology and economics. BioScience 50(4):357–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Naveh Z, Lieberman A (1994) Landscape ecology: theory and application, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuttle T, Hobbs R, Temperton V, Halle S (2004) Assembly rules and ecosystem restoration: where to from here? In: Temperton V, Hobbs R, Nuttle T, Halle S (eds) Search for ecological assembly rules and its relevance to restoration ecology. Island Press, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberndorfer E, Lundholm J, Bass B, Coffman R, Doshi H, Dunnett N, Gaffin S, Köhler M, Liu K, Rowe DB (2007) Green roofs as urban ecosystems: ecological structures, functions, and services. BioScience 57(10):823–833

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum H (1971) Environment, power and society. Wiley-Interscience, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum E (1992) Great ideas from ecology for the 1990’s. BioScience 42:542–545

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum H (2002) Material circulation, energy hierarchy, and building construction. In: Kibert CJ, Sendzimir J, Guy GB (eds) Construction ecology: nature as the basis for green buildings. pp 37–71, Spon Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum H, Nilsson P (eds) (1996) Environmental accounting: emergy and environmental decision making. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Osmundson T (1999) Roof gardens: history, design, and construction. W. W. Norton and Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranalli M, Lundholm J (2008) Biodiversity and ecosystem function in constructed ecosystems. CAB Rev Perspect Agric Vet Sci Nutr Nat Resour 3(34):1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenzweig M (2003) Reconciliation ecology and the future of species diversity. Oryx 37(2):194–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe DB (2011) Green roofs as a means of pollution abatement. Environ Pollut 159(8–9):2100–2110

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe DB, Getter K, Durhman A (2012) Effect of green roof media depth on Crassulacean plant succession over seven years. Landsc Urban Plan 104(3–4):310–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Sayed OH et al (1994) Growth, water relations, and CAM induction in Sedum album in response to water stress. Biol Plant 36(3):383–388

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schrader S, Böning M (2006) Soil formation on green roofs and its contribution to urban biodiversity with emphasis on Collembolans. Pedobiologia 50:347–356

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroll E, Lambrinos J, Righetti T, Sandrock D (2011) The role of vegetation in regulating stormwater runoff from green roofs in a winter rainfall climate. Ecol Eng 37(4):595–600

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmons M, Gardiner B, Windhager S, Tinsle J (2008) Green roofs are not created equal: the hydrologic and thermal performance of six different extensive green roofs and reflective and non-reflective roofs in a sub-tropical climate. Urban Ecosyst 1(4):339–348

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons R, Choi E, Simons D (2009) The effect of state and city green policies on the market penetration of green commercial buildings. J Sustain Real Estate 1(1):139–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Single Ply Roofing Institute (SPRI) (2010) ANSI/SPRI RP-14 Wind design standard for vegetative roofing systems. www.spri.org Waltham, MA, 36 p

  • Smith K, Roebber P (2011) Green roof mitigation potential for a proxy future climate scenario in Chicago, Illinois. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 50(3):507–522

    Google Scholar 

  • Snep R, Opdam P (2010) Integrating nature values in urban planning and design. In: Gaston K (ed) Urban ecology. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 261–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Snodgrass EL, MacIntyre L (2010) The green roof manual. Timber Press, Portland

    Google Scholar 

  • Solecki WD, Leichenko RM (2006) Urbanization and the metropolitan environment -Lessons from New York and Shanghai. Environment 48(4):8–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Suaris W, Irwin P (2010) Effect of roof-edge parapets on mitigating extreme roof suctions. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 98(10):483–491

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton R (2013a) Seeding native grass on green roofs. J Living Archit 1(1):1–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton R (2013b) Rethinking extensive green roofs to lessen emphasis on biomass. J Living Archit 1(1):2

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton R (2014) Aesthetics for green roofs and green walls. J Living Archit 1(2):1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton R, Harrington J, Skabelund L, MacDonagh P, Coffman R, Koch G (2012) Prairie-based green roofs: literature, templates and analogs. J Green Build 7(1):143–172. doi:10.3992/jgb.7.1.143

    Google Scholar 

  • Teemusk A, Mander Ü (2010) Temperature regime of planted roofs compared with conventional roofing systems. Ecol Eng 36(1):91–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Temperton V, Hobbs R (2004) Assembly rules and ecological restoration: where to from here? In: Temperton V, Hobbs R, Nuttle T, Halle S (eds) Search for ecological assembly rules and its relevance to restoration ecology. Island Press, Washington DC, pp 34–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Temperton V, Hobbs R, Nuttle T, Halle S (eds) (2004) Search for ecological assembly rules and its relevance to restoration ecology. Island Press, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Thayer R (1989) The experience of sustainable landscapes. Landsc J 8(2):101–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner M (1989) Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 20:171–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiler S, Schloz-Barth K (2009) Green roof systems: a guide to the planning, design, and construction of landscapes over structure. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • White P, Jentsch A (2004) Disturbance, succession, and community assembly in terrestrial plant communities. In: Temperton V, Hobbs R, Nuttle T, Halle S (eds) Search for ecological assembly rules and its relevance to restoration ecology. Island Press, Washington DC, pp 342–366

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiens J (1995) Toward a unified landscape ecology. In: Wiens J, Moss M (eds) Issues and perspectives in landscape ecology. Cambridge Press, New York, pp 148–151

    Google Scholar 

  • World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our common future, report of the world commission on environment and development. United Nations, Switzerland: Annex to UN General Assembly Document A/42/427

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J (2013) Landscape ecology. In Leemans R (ed) Ecological systems: selected entries from the encyclopedia of sustainability science and technology. Springer, New York, pp 179–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Zobel M, Otsus M, Liira J, Moora M, Möls T (2000) Is small-scale species richness limited by seed availability or microsite availability? Ecology 81(12):3274–3282

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

A UN-Lincoln Fleming Horticulture Research Grant to R. Sutton supported his editing and writing for this book.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agronomy & Horticulture, UN-Lincoln, 279 Plant Sciences, 68583-0915, Lincoln, NE, USA

    Dr. Richard K. Sutton PLA, FASLA, GRP

Authors
  1. Dr. Richard K. Sutton PLA, FASLA, GRP
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Richard K. Sutton PLA, FASLA, GRP .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA

    Richard K. Sutton

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sutton, R. (2015). Introduction to Green Roof Ecosystems. In: Sutton, R. (eds) Green Roof Ecosystems. Ecological Studies, vol 223. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14983-7_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation