Abstract
Far from being pioneering in terms of trying and understanding how water and human beings and societies interconnect, this work starts by presenting an overview of the previous literature that exists in this domain. The analysis, first, draws on the academic debate that portrays water-related problems and scarcities as the result of mismanagement and ineffective policy decisions. Thus, we look in detail at the new paradigms of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Adaptive and Integrated Water Resources Management (AIWM). Turning to political science and International Relations (IR) theories, this chapter then equips the reader with a thorough definition and understanding of governance (vertical and horizontal governance, multi-level governance, water governance, and adaptive governance) and institutions (their concept, institutional change, institutions across scales and institutional adaptive capacity). We find there have been relatively few empirical studies on how institutions and governance mechanisms systematically build – or not – their adaptive capacity to respond to the expected impacts of climate change in the water sector. We attempt to move the analysis of institutional adaptation mechanisms away from a mere focus on organisational learning towards looking at the interactions and development process of institutions. Finally, and given the inherent multi-scale nature of water resources management, the perspective of those scholars focusing on how governance stretches across spatial and temporal levels is presented. The chapter concludes by emphasising the need to establish and reinforce institutional adaptive capacity to facilitate system transformation towards the integration of uncertainty and the consequent ability to respond to change. However, from the literature it remains unclear how this process does or should occur, thus highlighting the need for a dynamic multi-level analysis of water institutions and how they respond to change.
Human progress is neither automatic nor inevitable. We are faced now with the fact that tomorrow is today. We are confronted with the fierce urgency of now. In this unfolding conundrum of life and history there is such a thing as being too late… We may cry out desperately for time to pause in her passage, but time is deaf to every plea and rushes on. Over the bleached bones and jumbled residues of numerous civilizations are written the pathetic words: Too late.
(Martin Luther King Jr. 1967)
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Notes
- 1.
According to Shiva (2002), the emergence of a corporate culture and the historical erosion of communal water rights are likely to lead to the deprivation of water rights for the world’s poor, which, in turn, will trigger water wars within and between human societies.
- 2.
In the 1990s, critical or non-traditional security studies broadened the understanding of national security threats to include not only military and economic threats but also environmental and social ones (e.g. Buzan et al. 1998).
- 3.
This idea falls under the concept of “environmental security” that describes the increasing risk of conflict as a consequence of resource scarcity. According to Thomas Homer-Dixon (1994), one of the most prominent exponents of this school of thought, resource scarcity generates conflict within a state in two primary ways: (a) by driving elites to “capture” resources, thus marginalising powerless groups in the process; and (b) by having a debilitating effect on economic and social innovations, and determining an “ingenuity gap” which condemns already poor countries to a condition of permanent underdevelopment.
- 4.
The historian Karl August Wittfogel, for example, observed that the drive to manage water in semiarid environments led to the dawn of institutional civilisations, as well as to particularly autocratic and despotic forms of government (Wittfogel 1956). In contrast, Arnold Toynbee argued that the impetus toward civilisation became stronger with greater environmental stress (Toynbee 1946).
- 5.
The “Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database” is a project of the Oregon State University Department of Geosciences in collaboration with the Northwest Alliance for Computational Science and Engineering. It seeks to compile a data set covering every reported interaction over water going back 50 years.
- 6.
However, Allan (2003) also pointed out that not all states are in the paradigm of reflexive modernity. While the ‘North’ or developed states have gradually moved to this stage, states in the ‘South’ are often still expanding their hydraulic mission.
- 7.
Decentralisation is usually defined as the “redistribution of authority and allocation of resources with more power being shifted away from the central or national level to lower levels of government.” (Dinar et al. 2007, p 852).
- 8.
Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) is defined as “the process of coordinating conservation, management and development of water, land and related resources across sectors within a given river basin, in order to maximise the economic and social benefits derived from water resources in an equitable manner, while preserving and, where necessary, restoring freshwater ecosystems” (Jones et al. 2003, p 15).
- 9.
From the Greek verb κυβερνάω [kubernáo] (Rosenau 1995). The notion of steering is prominent in the literature on governance, with many scholars explicitly using the word “steer” in their definitions of (global) governance or implicitly defining governance in a way that suggests it involves efforts to steer society towards the pursuit of collective goals (Pierre 2000; Rosenau 1995, 2000).
- 10.
The concept of externalities embraces all the external costs and benefits of a given activity, both pecuniary and non-pecuniary. External effects are felt differently by different categories of users and stakeholders. Therefore, internalising externalities, a process that usually happens through a change in property rights, means “bringing these effects back into the system so that all interacting actors can pay their costs and/or enjoy their benefits.” (Demsetz 1967, p 348).
- 11.
The concept of good governance was developed in the 1980s, but it was only in the 1990s that it became used in the social sciences as a means to analytically assess public policy arrangements in empirical research (Kooiman 1993). Since then, good governance has become very popular as a solution to government/market/system failure. Good governance is said to encompass “a range of normative values and public policy objectives which are seen as socially desirable, such as accountability, transparency, participation, justice, efficiency, rule of law, and absence of corruption” (UNDP 1997). Since good governance does not play a significant role in the analysis presented here, the debate is only briefly mentioned. Nevertheless, it should be noted that many other definitions of this concept exist (e.g. Brugnach et al. 2008).
- 12.
The World Water Forum is an international conference organised every 3 years since 1997 by the World Water Council, which is an international multi-stakeholder platform created in 1996 on the initiative of water specialists and international organisations in response to growing concerns about world water issues.
- 13.
It should be noted that the AWM approach does not substitute the IWRM one, but can rather “be considered an important adjunct to it, enhancing its relevance when operating under uncertain and complex conditions with respect to, for example, climate change and socio-economic changes” (Mysiak et al. 2010, p 7).
- 14.
An action situation occurs when individuals interact, exchange goods and services, solve problems or develop new rules. It is structured by seven broad attributes, which, in turn, are the core micro-variables that affect the preferences, information, strategies and actions of participants. Each action situation “includes a set of actors, which acquire, process, retain and use information, have preferences related to outcomes, consciously or unconsciously select one course of action over another, and have resources that they bring to the situation” (Ostrom 2005, p 15).
- 15.
Central to Hardin’s argument is the example of land tenure in medieval Europe, where herders shared a common parcel of land, and each of them was entitled to put cows on it, even if that meant damaging the quality of the common through overgrazing. The herder obviously received all the benefits from any additional cow she/he invested in, while the costs brought about by the degradation of the common were shared by the entire group. In the final instance, if all the herders made this individually rational (but collectively deplorable) economic decision, the common would be depleted or even destroyed. Hardin concluded that overexploitation leads to situations of scarcity both because the resource availability decreases exponentially and because its quality is altered. This, in turn, is likely to cause tensions and conflicts between users (Hardin 1968).
- 16.
On the basis of the time scale of the relevant adjustment process, natural resources can be classified as expendable, renewable, or depletable. Depletable resources are those whose adjustment speed is so slow that they can be considered as being made available by nature only once, such as natural gas and oil, endangered species, most minerals, and the ozone layer. Renewable resources, like water, forest products, and fish, adjust more rapidly, so that they self-renew in a time scale that is relevant for economic decision-making. Finally, expendable resources are those whose adjustment speed is so fast the use of the resource in one period has little or no effect on its availability in subsequent periods; this is the case of most agricultural products, for example (Kneese and Sweeney 1993).
- 17.
This view contrasts with the so-called “logic of appropriateness” in rational choice theories, according to which individuals behave as they do because of their desire to maximise individual utilities (March and Olsen 1984).
- 18.
Another useful definition of institutions is the one provided by Elinor Ostrom, according to whom institutions are “the set of rules actually used by a set of individuals to organise repetitive activities that produce outcomes affecting those individuals and potentially affecting others” (Ostrom 1992, p 56).
- 19.
Human actions have had far-reaching effects on biophysical systems for hundreds of years, an observation that has led prominent scientists to argue that the earth has made a transition from the Holocene era to a new one best described as the Anthropocene (Steffen et al. 2004; Crutzen and Stoermer 2000).
- 20.
The concept of co-management focuses on the creation of a community of institutional learning at the collective, rather than the individual, level (Berkes and Folke 2002). It examines participation and multi-level governance as potential routes for incorporating different forms of knowledge and learning. Scholars working in this field have suggested that the combination of collaborative management and adaptive management approaches builds more robust socio-ecological systems, as it more aptly takes into account cross-scale dynamics and linkages, and higher complexity (Berkes and Folke 2002; Pahl-Wostl et al. 2007; Huitema et al. 2009). It follows that both adaptive management and co-management strongly embrace the idea of “learning by judicious doing” (Holling 1978), which represents a significant departure from the more traditional approach of rigid and irreversible planning and anticipatory management.
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Mosello, B. (2015). Water Governance Throughout History and Science. In: How to Deal with Climate Change?. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15389-6_2
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