Abstract
The realisation of the suspect’s right to be informed imposes on the prosecutor an obligation to provide information in a manner and to the extent that guarantee observance of this right. Depending on the legal system, the prosecutor’s obligation to inform the defence is performed using one of the following two procedures. In continental systems, the prosecutor may, and sometimes must, provide access to the case file. In common law states, an obligation to provide information on the evidence to the suspect and the accused is performed as part of the “disclosure of evidence”. Before the ICC, the obligations of the Prosecutor to inform the accused about the evidence was solved utilising the model adopted in Anglo-Saxon states. The disclosure of evidence procedure was found to be strictly related to the assumption adopted by the ICC—that a trial was a dispute between two versions of a case prepared by the parties. In consequence, disclosure of evidence procedure constitutes a complicated procedure of gradual and multifaceted activities, including the application of the bilateral obligation to disclose and the specification of categories of evidence subject to disclosure, and complicated technical rules that are to be followed. However, is the disclosure of evidence procedure in the format existing in common law states compatible with the ICC’s needs?
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Notes
- 1.
Natunen v. Finland, 31 March 2009, application No. 21022/04, § 39.
- 2.
Prosecutor v. Kristić, IT-98-33, Appeals Chamber 19 April 2004, § 180.
- 3.
Judgment of the Polish Constitutional Tribunal, 27 January 2004, SK 50/03.
- 4.
- 5.
Cit. after: Damaška (1986), p. 50.
- 6.
Heinze (2014), p. 319.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
- 10.
- 11.
Cit. after: Skorupka (2007), p. 73.
- 12.
- 13.
Dz. U. of 2013, pos. 1247.
- 14.
Skorupka (2007), p. 67.
- 15.
- 16.
Cit. after: Ponikowski (2012), pp. 171–172.
- 17.
- 18.
In the words of: Damaška (1986), p. 50.
- 19.
See: Heinze (2014), p. 319.
- 20.
Cit. after: Worrall (2007), p. 295.
- 21.
As it was observed by: Hannibal and Mountford (2002), p. 164.
- 22.
- 23.
As highlighted in: The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Prosecution’s Final Observations on Disclosure, 2 May 2006, § 8.
- 24.
- 25.
The citation and the theory can be found in: Wiliński (2006), p. 79.
- 26.
- 27.
- 28.
See: Tochilovsky (2004a), pp. 319–344.
- 29.
- 30.
- 31.
E.g., Ambos (2007), p. 472.
- 32.
- 33.
In the case: Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-21, Decision on Motion by the accused Zejnil Delalić for the disclosure of evidence, 26 September 1996. The case and the reactions of the parties described in: Tochilovsky (2004a), pp. 319–344.
- 34.
Magistrates’ Courts; Act 1980, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1980/43/contents. Accessed 12 Feb 2015.
- 35.
Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996, section 25: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/25/section/3. Accessed 6 Sept 2014.
- 36.
Attorney-General’s Guidelines on disclosure, Pt 37(i-vi): http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/attorney_generals_guidelines_on_disclosure/. Accessed 6 Sept 2014.
- 37.
- 38.
The Criminal Procedure Rules 2013, Part 22, at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/1554/part/22/made. Accessed 11 July 2013.
- 39.
R v. Lattimore (1976) 62 Cr App R 53; [1976] Crim Lr 45: cited after: Hannibal and Mountford (2002), pp. 163–166. Similar observations in: Kuczyńska H (2009), p. 60.
- 40.
LaFave et al. (2009), p. 746.
- 41.
Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 16(a): http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcrmp/rule_16. Accessed 7 Feb 2015.
- 42.
These general guidelines of the federal law may be narrowed or broadened in state law, e.g., by adding a list of witnesses, including their addresses of residence, who may have information on the case and who, hypothetically, could testify in the trial. See: Worrall (2007), p. 295; LaFave et al. (2009), p. 985.
- 43.
- 44.
See: Heinze (2014), p. 319.
- 45.
Prosecutor v. Blagojević, IT-02-60, Appeals Chamber, 8 April 2003, § 18.
- 46.
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, Decision on the Defence Motion for Sanctions for the Prosecutor’s Failure to Comply with Rule (66)(A) of the Rules and the Decision of 27 January 1997 Compelling the Production of All Statements of the Accused, 15 June 1998. See also: Pruitt (2001), pp. 308–309.
- 47.
See in general: Bitti (2008), p. 1210.
- 48.
- 49.
- 50.
And not notes taken by certain journalists and non-governmental organisations during interviews. See: Tochilovsky (2008), p. 174.
- 51.
See: Tochilovsky (2002), p. 173.
- 52.
Provisions of the Code of Practice, sections 3.1–3.7, on the basis of Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996, section 23(1): http://www.xact.org.uk/information/downloads/CPIA/Disclosure_code_of_practice.pdf. Accessed 11 Sept 2014.
- 53.
- 54.
Heinze (2014), p. 338.
- 55.
Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 (section 25), http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/25/section/3. Accessed 6 Sept 2014.
- 56.
Attorney-General’s Guidelines on disclosure, Pt 37(i-vi), at: http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/attorney_generals_guidelines_on_disclosure/. Accessed 6 Sept 2014.
- 57.
- 58.
[2001] 2 Cr App R 427.
- 59.
Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963), Supreme Court, 13 May 1963, § 87.
- 60.
Kyles v. Whitley, 514 U.S. 419 (1995), Supreme Court, 19 April 1995.
- 61.
United States v. Agurs, 427 U.S. 97 (1976), Supreme Court, 24 June 1976.
- 62.
- 63.
Prosecutor v. Blagojević, IT-02-60, Joint Decision on Motions Related to Production of Evidence, 12 December 2002, § 26.
- 64.
Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-21-T, Decision on Motion by the Accused Z. Delalić for the Disclosure of Evidence, 26 September 1996.
- 65.
United States v. Jackson, 850 F. Supp. 1481, 1503 (U.S. Dist. Ct. D. Kan. 1994); United States v. Lloyd, 992 F.2d 348, 351 (U.S. Ct. App. D.C. Cir. 1993).
- 66.
- 67.
Prosecutor v. Kordić, IT-95-14/2, Decision on Motions to Extend Time for Filling Appellant’s Briefs, 11 May 2001, § 9; Prosecutor v. Kristić, IT-98-33, Appeals Chamber, 19 April 2004, § 178.
- 68.
Prosecutor v. Halilović, IT-01-48, Decision on the Defence Motion for Identification of Suspects and other Categories Among the Proposed Witnesses, 14 November 2003, p. 3.
- 69.
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14-A, Appeals Chamber, 29 July 2004, § 296; Prosecutor v. Blagojević, Joint Decision on Motions Related to Production of Evidence, 12 December 2002, § 26.
- 70.
As in e.g.: Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-21-T, TC II, Decision on the Motion by the Accused Zejnil Delalić for the Disclosure of Evidence, 26 September 1996, § 7 and 9.
- 71.
Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 16(a), at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcrmp/rule_16. Accessed 7 Sept 2014.
- 72.
- 73.
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14-PT, Decision on the Production of Discovery Materials, 27 January 1997, § 47, 50.
- 74.
Prosecutor v. Blagojević, IT-02-60-PT, Joint Decision on Motions Related to Production of Evidence, 12 December 2002, § 26.
- 75.
Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-21, Decision on the Motion by the Accused Zejnil Delalić for the Disclosure of Evidence, 26 September 1996, § 7, 9.
- 76.
We have to remember that “information loses heuristic value as its collective size begins to outgrow the capacity of humans to evaluate it”; cit. after: Ohlin (2009), p. 91.
- 77.
Prosecutor v. Mladić, IT-09-92, Decision on the defence motion for certification to appeal the decision on submissions relative to the proposed “EDS” method of disclosure, 13 August 2012.
- 78.
Prosecutor v. Krajišnik, IT-00-39, 23 May 2001, § 21–22. These cases and the consequences of the Prosecutor’s actions analysed: Tochilovsky (2011), p. 605.
- 79.
- 80.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008, § 77–84, where the jurisprudence of the ECtHR was invoked as in the case of Jaspers v. Belgium, application No. 8403/78, § 58, and Rowe and Davis v. United Kingdom, application No. 28901/95, § 60.
- 81.
Which obligation is not limited to permitting the defence to inspect but extends also to providing the defence with an electronic copy of this material if requested. See: Ambos (2007), p. 471.
- 82.
See: Schabas (2008), p. 1270.
- 83.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Judgment on the Appeal of Mr. Lubanga Dyilo against the oral decision of Trial Chamber I of 18 January 2008, Appeals Chamber, 11 July 2008, § 2.
- 84.
- 85.
The Prosecutor v. Bemba, Decision on the Evidence Disclosure System and Setting a Timetable for Disclosure between the Parties, 31 July 2008, § 68.
- 86.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-102, Decision on the Final System of Disclosure and the Establishment of a Timetable, 15 May 2006, § 120.
- 87.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008.
- 88.
The Prosecutor v. Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Decision on the confirmation of charges, 30 September 2008, § 181.
- 89.
The Prosecutor v. Abu Garda, Second Decision on issues relating to Disclosure, 15 July 2009, § 15.
- 90.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Prosecutor’s observations on disclosure, 6 April 2006, § 14.
- 91.
The Prosecutor v. Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/-07, Decision on Article 54(3)(e) Documents Identified as Potentially Exculpatory or Otherwise Material to the Defence’s Preparation of the Confirmation Hearing, 20 June 2008, § 2.
- 92.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008, § 87.
- 93.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on Disclosure Issues, Responsibilities for Protective Measures and other Procedural Matters, 24 April 2008, § 100.
- 94.
Cit. after: Heinze (2014), p. 500.
- 95.
The Prosecutor v. Bemba, Decision on the Evidence Disclosure System and Setting a Timetable for Disclosure between the Parties, 31 July 2008, § 28.
- 96.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Decision on the Final System of Disclosure and the Establishment of a Timetable, Annex, 15 May 2006, ICC-01/04-01/06, § 41. This case discussed by: Heinze (2014), p. 36.
- 97.
See: Heinze (2014), p. 39.
- 98.
As observed by A. Heinze, the narrow scope of interpretation was introduced by Judge Sylvia Steiner, who is a Brazilian judge.
- 99.
As the ICC highlighted in: The Prosecutor v. Bemba, ICC-01/05-01/08, Decision Regarding the Disclosure of Materials Pursuant to Article 67(2) of the Rome Statute and Rule 77 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 13 November 2008, § 14.
- 100.
- 101.
- 102.
Williams v. Florida, 399 U.S. 78 (1970), Supreme Court, 22 June 1970, § 86.
- 103.
See: LaFave et al. (2009), p. 984.
- 104.
See: Klamberg (2013), p. 1100.
- 105.
See: Schuon (2010), p. 120.
- 106.
See: Harmon and Karagiannakis (2000), pp. 326–327.
- 107.
Prosecutor v. Tadić, IT-94-1, Separate Opinion of Judge Stephen on prosecution motion for production of defence witness statement, 27 November 1996.
- 108.
Prosecutor v. Delalić, Decision on the Prosecution’s Motion for an Order Requiring Advance Disclosure of Witnesses by the Defence, 4 February 1999, § 30–48.
- 109.
Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, ICTR-95-1, Trial Chamber, 21 May 1999, § 233.
- 110.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Decision on the Final System of Disclosure and the Establishment of a Timetable, 15 May 2006.
- 111.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Decision on Disclosure by the Defence, 20 March 2008, § 41.
- 112.
- 113.
Cit. after: Heinze (2014), p. 317.
- 114.
Cit. after: Damaška (1986), p. 104.
- 115.
Cit. after: Klamberg (2013), p. 1105 and the case: Prosecutor v. Delalić, Decision on the Prosecution’s Motion for an Order Requiring Advance Disclosure of Witnesses by the Defence, 4 February 1999, § 30–48.
- 116.
See: May and Wierda (2002), pp. 84–85.
- 117.
“Ratko Mladic’s war crimes trial postponed over evidence”, BBC News, 17 May 2012.
- 118.
Prosecutor v. Furundžija, IT-95-17/1, Trial Chamber, 10 December 1998, § 22.
- 119.
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, Appeals Chamber, 29 July 2004, § 303.
- 120.
Prosecutor v. Stakić, IT-97-24, Appeals Chamber, 22 March 2006, § 192.
- 121.
Gallmetzer (2009), p. 501.
- 122.
Heinze (2014), p. 452.
- 123.
- 124.
Heinze (2014), p. 452.
- 125.
See the analysis of the relevant Rules: Brady (2001), p. 413.
- 126.
- 127.
Staff rules of the International Criminal Court, Annex to ICC/AI/2005/003, 25 August 2005, ICC-ASP/4/3.
- 128.
Code of Conduct for the Office of the Prosecutor: Date of entry into force: 5 September 2013.
- 129.
See: Brady (2001), p. 413.
- 130.
The Prosecutor v. Bemba, ICC-01/05-01/08, Decision on the Postponement of the Confirmation Hearing, 17 October 2008, § 23–25.
- 131.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Judgment on the Appeal of Mr. Lubanga Dyilo against the Decision of the Defence Challenge to the Jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to article 19(2)(a) of the Statute of 3 October 2006, 14 December 2006, § 37.
- 132.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008, § 93.
- 133.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008, § 92.
- 134.
- 135.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06 A 4 A 6, Judgment on the appeals of the Prosecutor and Mr Thomas Lubanga Dyilo against the “Decision on Sentence pursuant to Article 76 of the Statute”, 1 December 2014, § 109.
- 136.
Prosecutor v. Kupreškić, IT-95-16, 11 January 1999.
- 137.
- 138.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-102, Decision on the Final System of Disclosure and the Establishment of a Timetable, 15 May 2006, § 124–133.
- 139.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-102, Decision on the Final System of Disclosure and the Establishment of a Timetable, 15 May 2006, § 120–131.
- 140.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008, § 6.
- 141.
- 142.
Heinze (2014), p. 36.
- 143.
Prosecutor v. Blagojević, IT-02-60, Joint Decision on Motions Related to Production of Evidence, 12 December 2002, § 29.
- 144.
However, there is no obligation if the evidence has already been disclosed at the trial stage—see: Harmon and Karagiannakis (2000), p. 328. See the case: Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, Appeals Chamber, 29 July 2004, § 267.
- 145.
The ECtHR cases: Jasper v. United Kingdom, 16 February 2000, application No. 27052/95, and Rowe and Davis v. United Kingdom, 16 February 2000, application No. 28901/95; Natunen v. Finland, 31 March 2009, application No. 21022/04; Jałowiecki v. Poland, 17 February 2009, application No. 34030/07.
- 146.
Rule 70(A) RPE ICTY and Rule 81(1) RPE ICC.
- 147.
See: Schuon (2010), p. 122.
- 148.
E.g., Prosecutor v. Tadić, IT-94-1-T, Separate Opinion of Judge Stephen on prosecution motion for production of defence witness statement, 27 November 1996.
- 149.
Rule 70(B)–(G) RPE ICTY; Rule 68(iii) RPE ICTY; Rule 81(4) and Rule 82(1) RPE ICC in conj. With Article 56(3)(e) of the Rome Statute.
- 150.
Rule 81(5) RPE ICC.
- 151.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Judgment on the Appeal of Mr. Lubanga Dyilo against the Decision of the Defence Challenge to the Jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to article 19(2)(a) of the Statute of 3 October 2006, 14 December 2006, § 37.
- 152.
The Prosecutor v. Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Version publique expurgée de la: “Decision relative à la protection des témoins à charge 267 et 353” du 20 mai 2009, 28 May 2009, § 31, and the ECHR judgment cited there: Dowsett v. United Kingdom, 24 June 2003, § 43.
- 153.
The Prosecutor v. Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Judgment on the Appeal of the Prosecutor against the decision of Pre-Trial Chamber I entitled “First Decision on the Prosecution Request for Authorisation to Redact Witness Statements”, 13 May 2008, § 71.
- 154.
See: The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008, 13 June 2008, § 86—and the ECtHR judgment cited there: V. v. Finland, 24 July 2007, application No. 40412/98, § 78.
- 155.
The Prosecutor v. Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Judgment on the Appeal of the Prosecutor against the decision of Pre-Trial Chamber I entitled “First Decision on the Prosecution Request for Authorisation to Redact Witness Statements”, 13 May 2008, § 71–73. In the same case: Version publique expurgée de la Decision relative à la protection des témoins à charge 267 et 353 du 20 mai 2009, 28 May 2009, § 52.
- 156.
Rule 70(B) RPE ICTY; Rule 81(3) RPE ICC.
- 157.
If a State learns that information or documents of the State are being, or are likely to be, disclosed at any stage of the proceedings, and it is of the opinion that disclosure would prejudice its national security interests, that State shall have the right to intervene in order to obtain resolution of the issue in accordance with this article (Article 72(4) of the Rome Statute).
- 158.
See in general: Tochilovsky (2004a), p. 859.
- 159.
See: Ambos (2007), pp. 472–473.
- 160.
Płachta (2004), p. 714.
- 161.
- 162.
The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision Regarding the Timing and Manner of Disclosure and the Date of Trial, 9 November 2007, § 2.
- 163.
- 164.
Similarly: Kremens (2010), p. 78.
- 165.
See: Tochilovsky (2004a), p. 844.
- 166.
The so-called double dossier model proposed by Heinze (2014), p. 522, on the basis of the example of Italy.
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Kuczyńska, H. (2015). Obligations of the Prosecutor Related to the Accused’s Right to Information. In: The Accusation Model Before the International Criminal Court. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17626-0_5
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