Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of higher education for African Americans. It includes material about the history of African American education and the important role of federal legislation and court decisions in a sphere (education) that is largely left to the states. It provides an overview of science and technology education for African Americans. It discusses the important role of Historically Black Colleges and Universities. It also includes information about two organizations – the United Negro College Fund and the Thurgood Marshall College Fund – that are important funders of African American education generally.
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Notes
- 1.
The literature on African Americans and higher education covers a number of topics. Richards et al. (2013) and Thurgood Marshall College Fund (2013) provide information about scholarship organizations. Cowan and Maguire (1995), Jackson (2001), Willie et al. (1991), Bechtel (1989), Roebuck and Murty (1993) and Brown and Davis (2001) discuss the history of African-American higher education. Bauman (1998) covers educational attainment. Grier-Reed et al. (2011) covers transition to college. Blau (1999) covers community college. Freeman (1999), Brooks and Starks (2011), Elam (1989), Fleming (1984), Hale (2004), Harper and Newman (2010), Roebuck and Murty (1993) and Roscoe (1989) provide general information. For a bibliography of the early literature, see Fitch and Johnson (1988).
- 2.
It is hard to get good data, but as of 1860, there were approximately 4.5 million African Americans in the United States. Of the approximately four million African Americans in the South, approximately a quarter million were free. Of the half million African Americans in the North, practically all of them were free as of 1860. Abolitionist laws were enacted in Northern states beginning in the late eighteenth century, and by 1840 there were almost no slaves in the North.
- 3.
One interpretation is that Southern Whites were nervous about providing any education to Blacks because they would become more dissatisfied with their situations and might be in a better position to plan a revolt against Whites. The Gabriel [Prosser] revolt in Richmond, Virginia in 1800, the Denmark Vesey ’s plan for “the rising” up against White Charlestonians in 1822, and Nat Turner ’s bloody revolt in Southampton County, Virginia fueled this fear.
- 4.
A Kentucky law passed in 1904 segregated all education. It was upheld by the Supreme Court in 1907. Berea only resumed admitting African Americans in 1954.
- 5.
The Thirteenth Amendment was bolstered by passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, giving equal protection under the law, and the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, giving African Americans the right to vote.
- 6.
According to Allen et al. (2007), as of 1900 only 58 of 99 HBCUs taught a college-level curriculum and 90 % of the enrollment on these campuses was pre-college students.
- 7.
The first Morrill Act, passed in 1862, had established the system of land-grant colleges, which are public universities whose mission included teaching agriculture and the mechanical arts.
- 8.
By 1900, three quarters of the HBCUs that exist today had been founded.
- 9.
The Southern states were not keen on educating poor Whites either. In 1915, the North Central states spent $28 per White pupil on public education, while South Carolina spent $14 per White child and $1.13 per African American child. Fewer African American children attended public school than White children because the African American schools were more widely scattered and little school transportation was available. The student-teacher ratio was approximately twice as high at African American schools as at White schools. The average length of the public school year in South Carolina was 173 days for White students and 114 days for African American students. (Bechtel 1989)
In higher education, the model of industrial education was developed at Hampton Institute in Virginia and replicated at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama by the great educator Booker T. Washington , a graduate of Hampton. The liberal arts model of education for African Americans was championed by another great educator, W.E.B. DuBois , who graduated from Harvard and taught at Atlanta University . Atlanta, Fisk, and Howard universities were the Historically Black Universities with the strongest liberal arts tradition.
- 10.
To provide a more complete account than is possible here, one might want to not only tell the stories of the National Urban League and the NAACP, but also the history of the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education (NAFEO) – formed in 1969 – and perhaps some other institutions such as the Office for Advance of Public Black Colleges (part of the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges) and the National Urban League.
- 11.
Brown overturned, at least for public education, the U.S. Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which had upheld the Constitutionality of separate but equal public facilities (in this case, for seating on railway cars). For a detailed discussion of Brown, see Kluger (1975).
- 12.
The influential Coleman Report, Equality of Educational Opportunity, published in 1966 stimulated busing to fight segregation. However, the recommendation in the report to track students on the supposedly objective grounds of testing led to segregation within schools, with large numbers of African Americans directed into vocational tracks and large numbers of Whites directed into college preparatory tracks.
- 13.
In Swann the court also allowed busing from majority to minority schools and use of racial quotas in each school as tools to implement a single integrated school system. The courts, however, pointed out clearly that racial quotas were not an end in themselves.
- 14.
The admission of Black students to the University of Kentucky led to cross burnings on campus. Lyman dropped out of school after 1 year but was always proud of his role in integrating the university. Admission of African-American undergraduates began 5 years later.
- 15.
For an interesting perspective because it was written so close to the time of these events, see Ballard (1973).
- 16.
For a more general account of African Americans and higher education in the turbulent times of the late 1960s and early 1970s, see Rogers (2012).
- 17.
During the 1980s, White enrollment at HBCUs increased by 41 % (on a small base) while Black enrollment increased only 9 %; and at least two HBCUs, Bluefield State University and West Virginia State University, became majority White. (Allen et al. 2007) White enrollment in an HBCU can be a difficult sale. In one study reported in Minor (2008), White high school students in Mississippi believed the HBCUs had poor academic quality, anticipated they would feel social discomfort and experience racial discrimination if they attended an HBCU, and expected their parents would disapprove.
- 18.
This case is often discussed in connection with Adams v. Richardson (1973), which ruled that higher education was to be part of the desegregation actions of the U.S. Department of Education.
- 19.
There were similar efforts to California’s Proposition 209 in Florida, Michigan, and other states. The person principally behind these activities across the nation was Ward Connerly, first as the chairman of the California Civil Rights Initiative and later as the founder of the American Civil Rights Institute .
- 20.
For another account of legal influences on HBCUs, see Jackson and Nunn (2003, Chapter 3).
- 21.
On the effect of Black English vernacular on the way that public school students learn quantitative relations, its impact on learning of math and science by African American students, and as a case study for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, see Orr (1987). On various aspects of African-American STEM students in baccalaureate programs, see Cook (2014), Gochenaur (2005), Freeman et al. (2008), Taylor et al. (2008), Palmer et al. (2010b), Green and Glasson (2009), Smith et al. (2008), National Research Council (2014) and Bonner et al. (2009). On African-American community college students in STEM, see Jackson (2013, 2014). On African-American graduate students in STEM, see Malcom et al. (1998) and Bush (2014). On comparisons and relations between HBCUs and PWIs with regards to the STEM disciplines, see Essien-Wood and Wood (2013), which contrasts the role of faculty members in helping students at HBCUs integrate their academic and social lives, whereas faculty at PWIs are sometimes negative influences on Black students through “microaggressions” such as questioning students’ academic ability, suggesting they change to a less demanding major, or avoiding contact with students while on campus. Newman and Jackson (2013) reviews the advantages to students, HBCUs, and PWIs of programs in which African American students can spend their first 3 years at an HBCU and two additional years at a PWI, earning STEM degrees from both schools. On female African American STEM students, see Parker (2013), Galloway (2012), Wilkins (2014), Perna et al. (2009), Borum and Walker (2012) and Holmes (2013). On male African American STEM students, see Lundy-Wagner (2013).
In addition to the social science literature on African Americans and the STEM disciplines, there is some historical literature on this topic. See the various writings, for example, of Rayvon Fouche, Evelynn Hammonds , Kenneth Manning, and Willie Pearson. Williams (2003) compiles materials from the Blacks at MIT History Project. Harding (1993) includes a number of relevant articles on the racial economy of science.
On African American students in the computing disciplines, see DiSalvo et al. (2011), Quesenberry et al. (2013), Lopez et al. (2006), Lopez and Schulte (2002) and Williams et al. (2007) – in addition to the sources cited later in the book where broadening participation organizations in computing focused specifically on African Americans are discussed. Van Sertima (1983) has a list of African American inventors of information technologies, prepared by Kirstie Gentleman.
- 22.
- 23.
Other studies have also pointed to the salutary effects of learning communities – in which students take responsibility outside of class to help each other master course material – for African-American students. For example, Freeman et al. (2008), in a study of four HBCUs (Howard, Jackson State, Talladega, and Xavier) showed that learning communities had a positive influence on student attitudes, educational experiences, and motivation. The learning community of these four HBCUs is also studied in Taylor et al. (2008). Smith et al (2008) provides another account of the learning communities at Howard University.
- 24.
Some HBCUs have specifically addressed lack of academic preparation of freshmen STEM students by offering an online course or a precollege summer institute to bolster math and critical thinking skills, developing web-based tutoring systems to help students while they are studying for their difficult math courses, or providing upper-class students to tutor and mentor freshmen. (Palmer et al. 2010b)
- 25.
In the mid-1990s, Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson at Stanford University conducted the first studies on how stereotype threat could affect academic performance of African Americans. Their work became well known beyond the academy through a series of articles in Atlantic Monthly. ( Steele 1999) Stereotype threat is now a widely studied area of social psychology.
- 26.
- 27.
Another study (Gray 2013) pointed to the important role of faculty members at HBCUs in promoting doctoral STEM education. Faculty had a positive influence on their students by serving as role models, maintaining high-level expectations of academic performance, providing undergraduate research experiences, providing positive feedback on student performance, being accessible, and encouraging students to become scientists. These factors, Gray argued, overcame the weaknesses in infrastructure and deficiencies in academic rigor in the HBCU STEM curricula.
- 28.
There is a large social science literature on the topic of HBCUs. Provasnik et al. (2004), Esters and Strayhorn (2013), Bonner et al. (2009) and Hale (2006) provide general information. Brown and Davis (2001), U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2010), Allen et al. (2007), Brown (2013) and Minor (2008) provide useful information about the history of HBCUs. Ellis and Stedman (1989), Matthews (2008), Brown and Burnette (2014), Palmer et al. (2011) and Lee (2010) discuss various issues related to the funding and politics of HBCUs. Centra et al. (1970), Ehrenberg and Roibstein (1993), Wenglinsky (1996), Kim and Conrad (2006), Irvine and Fenwick (2011) and Constantine (1995) provide information about the effectiveness – include economic effectiveness – of HBCUs. Some of this literature was written in response to the Fordice decision, after which HBCUs felt the need to justify segregated Black institutions. Cole (2006), Shapiro (2008), Palmer et al. (2010a), Sydnor et al. (2010), Davis and Montgomery (2011), Haskell and Champion (2008) and Hughes (2012) explore various aspects of the academic programs at HBCUs. Van Camp et al. (2009), Lewis et al. (2008), Guiffrida (2005), Mawhinney (2011–2012) and Griffin (2013) discuss various social and cultural issues such as school selection, gender, and “othermothering”. Fountaine (2008, 2012) and Duncan and Barber-Freeman (2008) explore issues of doctoral education and HBCUs. Sibulkin and Butler (2005), Kim (2011), McDonald (2011), Kynard and Eddy (2009), Renzulli et al. (2006), Kim (2002) and Strayhorn et al. (2010) provide comparisons between HBCUs and PWIs.
- 29.
The ABET-accredited engineering programs are located at Howard, North Carolina AT&T, Alabama A&M, Prairie View A&M, Southern University-Baton Rouge , Tennessee State, Morgan State, Florida A&M, Hampton, Tuskegee, Norfolk State, and Jackson State.
- 30.
Other examples include $503 million from the state of Mississippi to Mississippi Valley State University , Jackson State University , and Alcorn State University ; $125 million from the state of Louisiana to Grambling University and Southern University; and $580 million from the state of North Carolina to Elizabeth City State University, Fayetteville State University , North Carolina A&T, North Carolina Central University, and Winston-Salem State University. See, for example, Matthews (2008) and Brown and Burnette (2014). Palmer et al. (2011) provides a case study of state funding to HBCUs in Maryland, while Lee (2010) provides a case study of state funding to HBCUs in Mississippi.
- 31.
Kim (2002) cites the instruction cost per student at an HBCU to be $6506, while at a PWI it is $8645.
- 32.
In terms of special characteristics of academic programs at HBCUs, see Cole (2006) on culturally sensitive curricula; Shapiro (2008) on learning communities generally and Haskell and Champion (2008) on learning communities specifically for STEM education; Sydnor et al. (2010) on community-based participatory research; and Davis and Montgomery (2011) on honors education.
- 33.
Strayhorn et al. (2010) provides an analysis of the role of the Black Cultural Center as a supportive environment for African American students on primarily White campuses.
- 34.
Faculty members at HBCUs often express satisfaction in the othermothering support they provide to students and regard it as one of the great values of an HBCU education; but othermothering does exact a heavy toll on the faculty in terms of time and emotional commitments to their students, disappointment and frustration when the students do not reciprocate by putting as much effort into the relationship, when the students expect favoritism, and the guilt that the faculty feel sometimes when they do not have the time or energy to practice othermothering to the highest standards or if the students fall short despite this othermothering effort. On othermothering, see, for example, Guiffrida (2005), Mawhinney (2011–2012) and Griffin (2013). Similar practices also occur sometimes at primarily White small liberal arts colleges, although the term ‘othermothering’ is not used. For the most part, however, mentoring of African American students at PWIs is much weaker than at HBCUs.
- 35.
In the science and technology fields, AT&T, Ford, IBM, Sloan, and Xerox have been historically important in providing significant fellowship support to African American students.
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Aspray, W. (2016). Opening STEM Careers to African Americans. In: Women and Underrepresented Minorities in Computing. History of Computing. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24811-0_3
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