Abstract
Carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis, and are therefore present in all organisms traditionally considered as algae. Around 200 different carotenoids has been encountered in algae, and the study of carotenoids is often used to determine the distribution of algae in ocean water.
The chapter gives a full overview of the various algal pigment groups, from the major ones as green algae down to rare pigment combinations that might be known only from a single to a few species. Extensive references are included for further study, together with figures presenting the molecular structure of the characteristic carotenoids, making it possible for the reader to see the structural diversity of carotenoids found in mostly planktonic algae.
The distribution of carotenoids in algae is followed by a presentation of the biosynthesis of carotenoids. This starts with the biosynthetic steps from small molecules to give carotenes, carotenoids consisting of only carbon and hydrogen. Further, the biosynthetic routes to major oxygen-containing carotenoids are described, before the various biosynthetic routes are linked together to large overviews including even rare algal carotenoids. A brief presentation of stress-induced carotenoid synthesis and biosynthetic cycles are included.
An overview about the practical laboratory work for the isolation and analyses of carotenoids follows. First, common precautions for work with carotenoids is presented, important as carotenoids are unstable compounds and will easily degrade during laboratory handling. Several practical tips are included, based on the author’s long experience in the field. The chapter gives recommendations for sample storage, extraction of pigments from the cells and the separation of the various carotenoids by chromatography. After separation, spectroscopic techniques are described for identification of the isolated carotenoids. The practical laboratory work ends with a presentation of common degradation products often observed when analysing carotenoids, compounds that may be misidentified as natural carotenoids.
The chapter ends with examples of uses for algal carotenoids followed by a brief presentation of large-scale production, also here with references for further studies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Wherever possible the currently accepted names for species are used. The name used in the paper cited is also indicated. For details of names see chapter “Systematics, Taxonomy and Species Names: Do They Matter?” of this book (Borowitzka 2016).
References
Aakermann T, Skulberg OM, Liaaen-Jensen S (1992) A comparison of the carotenoids of strains of Oscillatoria and Spirulina (Cyanobacteria). Biochem Syst Ecol 30:761–769
Aakermann T, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1993) Algal carotenoids 55. Structure elucidation of (3S,5R,6R,3′S,5′R,6′S)-13′-cis-7′,8′-dihydroneoxanthin-20′-al 3′-β-D-lactoside (P457). Part 1. Reisolation, derivatization and synthesis of model compounds. Acta Chem Scand 47:1207–1213
Abbas A, Josefson M, Abrahamsson K (2011) Characterization and mapping of carotenoids in the algae Dunaliella and Phaeodactylum using Raman and target orthogonal partial least squares. Chemom Intell Lab 107:174–177
Abe K, Mihara H, Hirano M (1998) Characteristics of growth and carotenoid accumulation of the aerial microalga Trentepohlia aurea in liquid culture. J Mar Biotechnol 6:53–58
Abe K, Hattori H, Hirano M (2007) Accumulation and antioxidant activity of secondary carotenoids in the aerial microalga Coelastrella striolata var. multistriata. Food Chem 100:656–661
Adl SM, Simpson AGB, Farmer MA, Andersen RA, Anderson OR, Barta JR, Bowser SS, Brugerolle G, Fensome RA, Fredericq S, James TY, Karpov S, Kugrens P, Krug J, Lane CE, Lewis LA, Lodge J, Lynn DH, Mann DG, McCourt RM, Mendoza L, Moestrup Ø, Mozley-Standridge SE, Nerad TA, Shearer CA, Smirnov AV, Spiegel FW, Taylor MFJR (2005) The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J Eukaryot Microbiol 52:399–451
Airs RL, Garrido JL (2011) Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for pigment analysis. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 314–342
Andersen RA (1987) Synurophyceae classis nov., a new class of algae. Am J Bot 74:337–353
Bailey JC, Bidigare RR, Christensen SJ, Andersen RA (1998) Phaeothamniophyceae classis nova: a new lineage of chromophytes based upon photosynthetic pigments, rbcL sequence analysis and ultrastructure. Protist 149:245–263
Ben-Amotz A, Polle JEW, Rao DVS (eds) (2009) The alga Dunaliella: biodiversity, physiology, genomics and biotechnology. Science Publishers, Enfield, 557 pp
Bernhard K (1995) Chromatography: Part II column chromatography. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1A, Isolation and Analysis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 117–130
Bjerkeng B (2008) Carotenoids in aquaculture: fish and crustaceans. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 4, Natural Functions. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 237–254
Bjørnland T, Aguilar-Martinez M (1976) Carotenoids in red algae. Phytochemistry 15:291–296
Bjørnland T, Liaaen-Jensen S (1989) Distribution patterns of carotenoids in relation to chromophyte phylogeny and systematics. In: Green JC, Leadbeater BSC, Diver WL (eds) The chromophyte algae: problems and perspectives. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 37–60
Bjørnland T, Borch G, Liaaen-Jensen S (1984) Configurational studies on red algae carotenoids. Phytochemistry 8:1711–1715
Bjørnland T, Borch G, Liaaen-Jensen S (1986) Additional oxa-biocyclo[2.2.1]heptane carotenoids from Eutreptiella gymnastica. Phytochemistry 25:201–205
Bjørnland T, Liaaen-Jensen S, Throndsen J (1989) Carotenoids of the marine chrysophyte Pelagococcus subviridis. Phytochemistry 28:3347–3353
Bjørnland T, Haxo FT, Liaaen-Jensen S (2003) Carotenoids of the Florida red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. Biochem Syst Ecol 31:1147–1162
Bodył A, Moszczyński K (2007) Did the peridinin plastid evolve through tertiary endosymbiosis? A hypothesis. Eur J Phycol 41:435–448
Böhme K, Wilhelm C, Goss R (2002) Light regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in the prasinophycean alga Mantoniella squamata. Photochem Photobiol Sci 1:619–628
Boonyaratpalin M, Thongrod S, Supamattaya K, Britton G, Schlipalius LE (2001) Effects of β-carotene source, Dunaliella salina, and astaxanthin on pigmentation, growth, survival and health of Penaeus monodon. Aquac Res 32(Suppl 1):182–190
Boonyareth M, Saranak J, Pinthong D, Sanvarinda Y, Foster KW (2009) Roles of cyclic AMP in regulation of phototaxis in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Biologia 64:1058–1065
Borowitzka MA (2010) Carotenoid production using microorganisms. In: Cohen Z, Ratledge C (eds) Single cell oils. Microbial and algal oils. AOCS Press, Urbana, pp 225–240
Borowitzka MA (2013a) High-value products from microalgae–their development and commercialisation. J Appl Phycol 25:743–756
Borowitzka MA (2013b) Dunaliella: biology, production, and markets. In: Richmond A, Hu Q (eds) Handbook of microalgal culture. Wiley, Oxford, pp 359–368
Borowitzka MA (2016) Systematics, taxonomy and species names: do they matter? In: Borowitzka MA, Beardall J, Raven JA (eds) The physiology of microalgae. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 655–681
Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ, Kessley D (1990) Effects of salinity increase on carotenoid accumulation in the green alga Dunaliella salina. J Appl Phycol 2:111–119
Bosma R, Wijffels RH (2003) Marine biotechnology in education: a competitive approach. Biomol Eng 20:125–131
Boussiba S (2000) Carotenogenesis in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis: cellular physiology and stress response. Physiol Plant 108:111–117
Breithaupt DE (2008) Xanthophylls in poultry feeding. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 4, Natural functions. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 255–264
Britton G (1995) UV/Visible spectroscopy. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1B, Spectroscopy. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 13–62
Britton G (2008a) Functions of intact carotenoids. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 4, Natural functions. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 189–212
Britton G (2008b) Functions of carotenoid metabolites and breakdown products. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 4, Natural functions. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 309–324
Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) (1996) Carotenoids, vol 2, Synthesis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 359 pp
Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) (1998) Carotenoids, vol 3, Biosynthesis and metabolism. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 414 pp
Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Mercadante AZ, Egeland ES (compilers) (2004) Carotenoids: handbook. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 647 pp
Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) (2008) Carotenoids, vol 4, Natural functions. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 370 pp
Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) (2009) Carotenoids, vol 5, Nutrition and health. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 431 pp
Brunet C, Johnsen G, Lavaud J, Roy S (2011) Pigments and photoacclimation processes. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 445–471
Buchecker R, Noack K (1995) Circular dichroism. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1B, Spectroscopy. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 63–116
Campo JAD, García-González M, Guerrero MG (2007) Outdoor cultivation of microalgae for carotenoid production: current state and perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 74:1163–1174
Cavalier-Smith T (2007) Evolution and relationships of algae: major branches of the tree of life. In: Brodie J, Lewis J (eds) Unravelling the algae: the past, present, and future of algal systematics. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 21–55
Cazzonelli CI, Pogson BJ (2010) Source to sink: regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Trends Plant Sci 15:266–274
Chen M, Schliep M, Willows RD, Cai Z-L, Neilan BA, Scheer H (2010) A red-shifted chlorophyll. Science 329:1318–1319
Chen M, Li Y, Birch D, Willows RD (2012) A cyanobacterium that contains chlorophyll f – a red-absorbing photopigment. FEBS Lett 586:3249–3254
Chen L, Zhang L, Zhang W, Liu T (2015) Comparative analysis of growth and carotenoid accumulation of Trentepohlia arborum in aerial, subaerial, and aquatic cultivation. J Appl Phycol 27:1079–1087
Christensen T (1980–1994) Algae: a taxonomic survey. AiO Print, Odense. 472 pp
Collins AM, Jones HDT, Han D, Hu Q, Beechem TE, Timlin JA (2011) Carotenoid distribution in living cells of Haematococcus pluvialis (Chlorophyceae). PLoS One 6:e24302
Colombo-Pallotta MF, García-Mendoza E, Ladah LB (2006) Photosynthetic performance, light absorption, and pigment composition of Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) blades from different depths. J Phycol 42:1225–1234
Cordero BF, Obraztsova I, Martín L, Couso I, León R, Vargas MÁ, Rodríguez H (2010) Isolation and characterization of a lycopene β-cyclace gene from the astaxantin-producing green alga Chlorella zofingiensis (Chlorophyta). J Phycol 46:1229–1238
Cordero BF, Obraztsova I, Couso I, Leon R, Vargas MA, Rodriguez H (2011) Enhancement of lutein production in Chlorella sorokiniana (Chlorophyta) by improvement of culture conditions and random mutagenesis. Mar Drugs 9:1607–1624
Crespo C, Rodríguez H, Segade P, Iglesias R, García-Estévez JM (2009) Coccomyxa sp. (Chlorophyta: Chlorococcales), a new pathogen in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) of Vigo estuary (Galicia, NW Spain). J Invertebr Pathol 102:214–219
Cunningham FX, Gantt E (2011) Elucidation of the pathway to astaxanthin in the flowers of Adonis aestivalis. Plant Cell 23:3055–3069
Delwiche CF (1999) Tracing the thread of plastid diversity through the tapestry of life. Am Nat 154:S164–S177
Demmig-Adams B, Adams WW (1993) The xanthophyll cycle. In: Young A, Britton G (eds) Carotenoids in photosynthesis. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 206–251
Descy J-P, Hardy M-A, Sténuite S, Pirlot S, Leporcq B, Kimirei I, Sekadende B, Mwaitega SR, Sinyenza D (2005) Phytoplankton pigments and community composition in Lake Tanganyika. Freshw Biol 50:668–684
Descy J-P, Tarbe A-L, Stenuite S, Pirlot S, Stimart J, Vanderheyden J, Leporcq B, Stoyneva MP, Kimirei I, Sinyinza D, Plisnier P-D (2010) Drivers of phytoplankton diversity in Lake Tanganyika. Hydrobiologia 653:29–44
Dobrzyn P, Tatur A, Keck A (2009) Photosynthetic pigments as indicators of phytoplankton development during spring and summer in Adventfjorden (Spitsbergen). Oceanology 49:368–376
Dufossé L (2009) Microbial and microalgal carotenoids as colourants and supplements. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 5, Nutrition and health. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 83–98
Dufossé L, Galaup P, Yaron A, Arad SM, Blanc P, Murthy KNC, Ravishankar GA (2005) Microorganisms and microalgae as sources of pigments for food use: a scientific oddity or an industrial reality? Trends Food Sci Technol 16:389–406
Edvardsen B, Eikrem W, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Riisberg I, Johnsen G, Naustvoll L, Throndsen J (2007) Verruchophora farcimen gen. et sp. nov. (Dictyochophyceae, Heterokonta)–a bloom-forming ichthyotoxic flagellate from the Skagerrak, Norway. J Phycol 43:1054–1070
Egeland ES (1996) Algekarotenoider og kjemosystematikk. Dr ing thesis no. 1996:92, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, 221 pp
Egeland ES (2011a) Data sheets aiding identification of phytoplankton carotenoids and chlorophylls. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 665–822
Egeland ES (2011b) Minimum identification criteria for phytoplankton pigments. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 650–652
Egeland ES (2011c) Specific absorption coefficients for major algal chlorophylls, bacteriochlorophylls and carotenoids. Electronic supplement to Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 49 pp. Downloadable from http://www.cambridge.org/download_file/212953
Egeland ES, Schlüter L (2011) Appendix E: commercial suppliers of phytoplankton pigments. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 658–663
Egeland ES, Johnsen G, Liaaen-Jensen S (1996) Variable carotenoid composition in a prasinophycean phytoplankton acclimated to three different irradiances. In: 11th international symposium on carotenoids, abstract of poster presentations, Leiden, p 92
Egeland ES, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1997) Additional carotenoid prototype representatives and a general chemosystematic evaluation of carotenoids in Prasinophyceae (Chlorophyta). Phytochemistry 44:1087–1097
Egeland ES, Garrido JL, Zapata M, Maestro MA, Liaaen-Jensen S (2000) Algal carotenoids. Part 64. Structure and chemistry of 4-keto-19′-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin with a novel carotenoid end group. J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:1223–1230
Eikrem W, Romari K, Latasa M, Gall FL, Throndsen J, Vaulot D (2004) Florenciella parvula gen. et sp. nov. (Dictyochophyceae, Heterokontophyta), a small flagellate isolated from the English Channel. Phycologia 43:658–668
Englert G (1995) NMR spectroscopy. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1B, Spectroscopy. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 147–260
Enzell CR, Back S (1995) Mass spectrometry. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1B, Spectroscopy. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 261–320
Esteban R, Martínez B, Fernández-Marín B, Becerril JM, García-Plazaola JI (2009) Carotenoid composition in Rhodophyta: insights into xanthophyll regulation in Corallina elongata. Eur J Phycol 44:221–230
Eugster CH (1995) Chemical derivatization: microscale tests for the presence of common functional groups in carotenoids. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1A, Isolation and analysis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 71–80
Evertsen J, Johnsen G (2009) In vivo and in vitro differences in chloroplast functionality in the two north Atlantic sacoglossans (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia) Placida dendritica and Elysia viridis. Mar Biol 156:847–859
Falkowski PG, Raven JA (2007) Aquatic photosynthesis, 2nd edn. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 484 pp
Fiksdahl A, Liaaen-Jensen S (1988) Diacetylenic carotenoids from Euglena viridis. Phytochemistry 27:1447–1450
Fiksdahl A, Bjørnland T, Liaaen-Jensen S (1984a) Algal carotenoids with novel end groups. Phytochemistry 23:649–655
Fiksdahl A, Withers N, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1984b) Carotenoids of the Raphidophyceae–a chemosystematic contribution. Comp Biochem Physiol 78B:265–271
Foss P, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1984) Prasinoxanthin–a chemosystematic marker for algae. Phytochemistry 23:1629–1633
Foss P, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1986) Carotenoids from eukaryotic ultraplankton clones (Prasinophyceae). Phytochemistry 25:119–124
Furuya K, Lirdwitayaprasit T (2000) Pigment composition of Pedinomonas noctilucae (Pedinophyceae), and endosymbiont of green Noctiluca (Dinophyceae). La Mer 38:95–97
Ganesan P, Noda K, Manabe Y, Ohkubo T, Tanaka Y, Maoka T, Sugawara T, Hirata T (2011) Siphonaxanthin, a marine carotenoid from green algae, effectively induces apoptosis in human leukemia (HL-60) cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1810:497–503
Gao Z, Meng C, Zhang X, Xu D, Zhao Y, Wang Y, Lv H, Yang L, Chen L, Ye N (2012a) Differential expression of carotenogenic genes, associated changes of astaxanthin production and photosynthesis features induced by JA in H. pluvialis. PLoS One 7:e42243
Gao Z, Meng C, Zhang X, Xu D, Miao X, Wang Y, Yang L, Lv H, Chen L, Ye N (2012b) Induction of salicylic acid (SA) on transcriptional expression of eight carotenoid genes and astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus pluvialis. Enzym Microb Technol 51:225–230
Gin KYH, Zhang S, Lee YK (2003) Phytoplankton community structure in Singapore’s coastal waters using HPLC pigment analysis and flow cytometry. J Plankton Res 25:1507–1519
Goodwin TW (1980) The biochemistry of carotenoids, vol 1, 2nd edn, Plants. Chapman and Hall, London, 377 pp
Graham JE, Bryant DA (2008) The biosynthetic pathway for synechoxanthin, an aromatic carotenoid synthesized by the euryhaline, unicellular cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7002. J Bacteriol 190:7966–7974
Graham JE, Lecomte JTJ, Bryant DA (2008) Synechoxanthin, an aromatic C40 xanthophyll that is a major carotenoid in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002. J Nat Prod 71:1647–1650
Graham LE, Graham JM, Wilcox LW (2009) Algae, 2nd edn. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, 698 pp
Greenberger S, Harats D, Salameh F, Lubish T, Harari A, Trau H, Shaish A (2012) 9-cis-Rich β-carotene powder of the alga Dunaliella reduces the severity of chronic plaque psoriasis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Am Coll Nutr 31:320–326
Grosser K, Zedler L, Schmitt M, Dietzek B, Popp J, Pohnert G (2012) Disruption-free imaging by Raman spectroscopy reveals a chemical sphere with antifouling metabolites around macroalgae. Biofouling 28:687–696
Grung M, Liaaen-Jensen S (1993) Algal carotenoids 52; secondary carotenoids of algae 3; carotenoids in a natural bloom of Euglena sanguinea. Biochem Syst Ecol 21:757–763
Grung M, D’Souza FML, Borowitzka MA, Liaaen-Jensen S (1992) Algal carotenoids 51. Secondary carotenoids 2. Haematococcus pluvialis aplanospores as a source of (3S,3′S)-astaxanthin esters. J Appl Phycol 4:165–171
Gruszecki WI (2010) Carotenoids in lipid membranes. In: Landrum JT (ed) Carotenoids: physical, chemical and biological functions and properties. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 19–30
Guaratini T, Cardozo KHM, Pinto E, Colepicolo P (2009) Comparison of diode array and electrochemical detection in the C30 reverse phase HPLC analysis of algae carotenoids. J Braz Chem Soc 20:1609–1616
Guedes AC, Amaro HM, Malcata FX (2011) Microalgae as sources of carotenoids. Mar Drugs 9:625–644
Guidi-Rontani C, Maheswari U, Jabbari K, Bowler C (2010) Comparative ecophysiology and genomics of the toxic unicellular alga Fibrocapsa japonica. New Phytol 185:446–458
Guil-Guerrero JL, Rebolloso-Fuentes MM (2008) Nutrient composition of Chlorella spp. and Monodus subterraneus cultured in a bubble column reactor. Food Biotechnol 22:218–233
Guillou L, Chrétiennot-Dinet MJ, Medlin LK, Claustre H, Goër SL-d, Vaulot D (1999) Bolidomonas: a new genus with two species belonging to a new algal class, the Bolidophyceae (Heterokonta). J Phycol 35:368–381
Harada K-I, Ozaki K, Tsuzuki S, Kato H, Hasegawa M, Kuroda EK, Arii S, Tsuji K (2009) Blue color formation of cyanobacteria with β-cyclocitral. J Chem Ecol 35:1295–1301
Harker M, Hirschberg J (1997) Biosynthesis of ketocarotenoids in transgenic cyanobacteria expressing the algal gene for β-C-4-oxygenase, crtO. FEBS Lett 404:129–134
Haugan JA, Liaaen-Jensen S (1994a) Algal carotenoids 54. Carotenoids of brown algae (Phaeophyceae). Biochem Syst Ecol 22:31–41
Haugan JA, Liaaen-Jensen S (1994b) Blue carotenoids. Part 2. The chemistry of the classical colour reaction of common carotenoid 5,6-epoxides with acid. Acta Chem Scand 48:152–159
Haugan JA, Liaaen-Jensen S (1994c) Blue carotenoids. Part 1. Novel oxonium ions derived from fucoxanthin. Acta Chem Scand 48:68–75
Hertzberg S, Liaaen-Jensen S, Siegelman HW (1971) The carotenoids of blue-green algae. Phytochemistry 10:3121–3127
Higgins HW, Mackey DJ, Clementson ML (2006) Phytoplankton distribution in the Bismarck Sea north of Papua New Guinea: the effect of the Sepik river outflow. Deep-Sea Res I 53:1845–1863
Hirschberg J (1998) Molecular biology of carotenoid biosynthesis. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 3, Biosynthesis and metabolism. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 149–194
Horath T, Neu TR, Bachofen R (2006) An endolithic microbial community in Dolomite rock in Central Switzerland: characterization by reflection spectroscopy, pigment analysis, scanning electron microscopy and laser scanning microscopy. Microb Ecol 51:353–364
Horn S, Ehlers K, Fritzsch G, Gil-Rodríguez MC, Wilhelm C, Schnetter R (2007) Synchroma grande spec. nov. (Synchromophyceae class. nov., Heterokontophyta): an amoeboid marine alga with unique plastid complexes. Protist 158:277–293
Huang YY, Beal CM, Cai WW, Ruoff RS, Terentjev EM (2009) Micro-Raman spectroscopy of algae: composition analysis and fluorescence background behaviour. Biotechnol Bioeng 105:889–898
Hynes N, Egeland ES, Koppe W, Baardsen G, Kiron V (2009) Calanus oil as a natural source for flesh pigmentation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquac Nutr 15:202–208
IUPAC Commission on the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, IUPAC–IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (1975) Nomenclature of carotenoids (Rules approved 1974). Pure Appl Chem 41:405–431
IUPAC, Division of Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation (2014) Nomenclature of organic chemistry. IUPAC recommendations and preferred names 2013. Prepared by Favre HA, Powell WH, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 1611 pp
Jeffrey SW, Egeland ES (2009) Pigments of green and red forms of Dunaliella, and related chlorophytes. In: Ben-Amotz A, Polle JEW, Rao DVS (eds) The alga Dunaliella: biodiversity, physiology, genomics and biotechnology. Science Publishers, Enfield, pp 111–145
Jeffrey SW, Mantoura RFC, Wright SW (1997) Phytoplankton pigments in oceanography: guidelines to modern methods. Unesco Publishing, Paris, 661 pp
Jeffrey SW, Wright SW, Zapata M (2011) Microalgal classes and their signature pigments. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 3–77
Jin E, Polle JEW, Lee HK, Hyun SM, Chang M (2003) Xanthophylls in microalgae: from biosynthesis to biotechnological mass production and application. J Microbiol Biotechnol 13:165–174
Jodłowska S, Latała A (2013) Combined effects of light and temperature on growth, photosynthesis, and pigment content in the mat-forming cyanobacterium Geitlerinema amphibium. Photosynthetica 51:202–214
Johansen JE, Svec WA, Liaaen-Jensen S, Haxo FT (1974) Carotenoids of the Dinophyceae. Phytochemistry 13:2261–2271
Ju ZY, Deng D-F, Dominy WG (2011) Pigmentation of Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, by dietary astaxanthin extracted from Haematococcus pluvialis. J World Aquacult Soc 42:633–644
Jüttner F, Watson SB, Ev E, Köster O (2010) β-Cyclocitral, a grazer defence signal unique to the cyanobacterium Microcystis. J Chem Ecol 36:1387–1397
Kai A, Yoshii Y, Nakayama T, Inouye I (2008) Aurearenophyceae classis nova, a new class of Heterokontophyta based on a new marine unicellular alga Aureareana cruciata gen. et sp. nov. inhabiting sandy beaches. Protist 159:435–457
Kawachi M, Inouye I, Honda D, O’Kelly CJ, Bailey JC, Bidigare RR, Andersen RA (2002) The Pinguiophyceae classis nova, a new class of photosynthetic stramenophiles whose members produce large amounts of omega-3 fatty acids. Phycol Res 50:31–47
Kawai H, Maeba S, Sasaki H, Okuda K, Henry EC (2003) Schizocladia ischiensis: a new filamentous marine chromophyte belonging to a new class, Schizocladiophyceae. Protist 154:211–228
Keeling PJ, Burger G, Durnford DG, Lang BF, Lee RW, Pearlman RE, Roger AJ, Gray MW (2005) The tree of eukaryotes. Trends Ecol Evol 20:670–676
Khalil ZI, Asker MMS, El-Sayed S, Kobbia IA (2010) Effect of pH on growth and biochemical responses of Dunaliella bardawil and Chlorella ellipsoidea. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 26:1225–1231
Kleinegris DMM, Janssen M, Brandenburg WA, Wijffels RH (2011) Two-phase systems: potential for in situ extraction of microalgal products. Biotechnol Adv 29:502–507
Kobayashi M (2003) Astaxanthin biosynthesis enhanced by reactive oxygen species in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis. Biotechnol Bioproc Eng 8:322–330
Kotrbáček V, Skřivan M, Kopecký J, Pěnkava O, Hudečkova P, Uhríková I, Doubek J (2013) Retention of carotenoids in egg yolks of laying hens supplemented with heterotrophic Chlorella. Czech J Anim Sci 58:193–200
Küster A, Schaible R, Schubert H (2005) Sex-specific light acclimation of Chara canescens (Charophyta). Aquat Bot 83:129–140
Lamers PP, Laak CCW, Kaasenbrood PS, Lorier J, Janssen M, Vos RCHD, Bino RJ, Wijffels RH (2010) Carotenoid and fatty acid metabolism in light-stressed Dunaliella salina. Biotechnol Bioeng 106:638–648
Larkum AW (2016) Photosynthesis and light harvesting in algae. In: Borowitzka MA, Beardall J, Raven JA (eds) Physiology of microalgae. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 67–87
Larkum AWD, Douglas SE, Raven JA (eds) (2003) Photosynthesis in algae. Advances in photosynthesis and respiration, vol 14. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 480 pp
Laza-Martinez A, Seoane S, Zapata M, Orive E (2007) Phytoplankton pigment patterns in a temperate estuary: from unialgal cultures to natural assemblages. J Plankton Res 29:913–929
Lee Y-K, Zhang D-H (1999) Production of astaxanthin by Haematococcus. In: Cohen Z (ed) Chemicals from microalgae. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 173–195
Lemoine Y, Schoefs B (2010) Secondary ketocarotenoid astaxanthin and biosynthesis in algae: a multifunctional response to stress. Photosynth Res 106:155–177
Li Y, Sommerfeld M, Chen F, Hu Q (2008) Consumption of oxygen by astaxanthin biosynthesis: a protective mechanism against oxidative stress in Haematococcus pluvialis (Chlorophyceae). J Plant Physiol 165:1783–1797
Li Z, Ma X, Li A, Zhang C (2012) A novel potential source of β-carotene: Eustigmatos cf. polyphem (Eustigmatophyceae) and pilot β-carotene production in bubble column and flat panel photobioreactors. Bioresour Technol 117:257–263
Liaaen-Jensen S (1998) Carotenoids in chemosystematics. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 3, Biosynthesis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 217–247
Liaaen-Jensen S, Egeland ES (1999) Microalgal carotenoids. In: Cohen Z (ed) Chemicals from microalgae. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 145–172
Lichtenthaler HK, Schwender J, Disch A, Rohmer M (1997) Biosynthesis of isoprenoids in higher plant chloroplasts proceeds via a mevalonate-independent pathway. FEBS Lett 400:271–274
Lichtlé C, Arsalane W, Duval JC, Passaquet C (1995) Characterization of the light-harvesting complex of Giraudyopsis stellifer (Chrysophyceae) and effects of light stress. J Phycol 31:380–387
Loebich LA (1982) Photosynthesis and pigments influenced by light intensity and salinity in the halophile Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyceae). J Mar Biol Assoc U K 62:493–508
Lohr M (2011) Carotenoid metabolism in phytoplankton. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 113–161
Lohr M, Wilhelm C (1999) Algae displaying the diadinoxanthin cycle also possess the violaxanthin cycle. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:8784–8789
Lohr M, Schwender J, Polle JEW (2012) Isoprenoid biosynthesis in eukaryotic phototrophs: a spotlight on algae. Plant Sci 185–186:9–22
Louda JW (2008) HPLC-based chemotaxonomy of Florida Bay phytoplankton: difficulties in coastal environments. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol 31:295–323
Mackey MD, Mackey DJ, Higgins HW, Wright SW (1996) CHEMTAX–a program for estimating class abundances from chemical markers: application to HPLC measurements of phytoplankton. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 144:265–283
Maoka T, Akimoto N, Tsushima M, Komemushi S, Mezaki T, Iwase F, Takahashi Y, Sameshima N, Mori M, Sakagami Y (2011a) Carotenoids in marine invertebrates living along the Kuroshio current coast. Mar Drugs 9:1419–1427
Maoka T, Etoh T, Kishimoto S, Sakata S (2011b) Carotenoids and their fatty acid esters in the petals of Adonis aestivalis. J Oleo Sci 60:47–52
Marin B, Melkonian M (2010) Molecular phylogeny and classification of the Mamiellophyceae class. nov. (Chlorophyta) based on sequence comparisons of the nuclear- and plastid-encoded rRNA operons. Protist 161:304–336
Matsumoto T, Kawachi M, Miyashita H, Inagaki Y (2012) Prasinoxanthin is absent in the green-colored dinoflagellate Lepidodinium chlorophorum strain NIES-1868: pigment composition and 18S rRNA phylogeny. J Plant Res 125:705–711
McGowan S, Barker P, Haworth EY, Leavitt PR, Maberly SC, Pates J (2012) Humans and climate as drivers of algal community change in Windermere since 1850. Freshw Biol 57:260–277
Meyer-Harms B, Pollehne F (1998) Alloxanthin in Dinophysis norvegica (Dinophysiales, Dinophyceae) from the Baltic Sea. J Phycol 34:280–285
Milledge JJ (2011) Commercial applications of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 10:31–41
Moewus F (1938) Carotinoide as Sexualstoffe von Algen. Jahrb Wiss Bot 86:753–783
Moewus F (1940) Carotinoid-Derivate als geschlechtsbestimmende Stoffe von Algen. Biol Zbl 60:143–166
Mogedas B, Casal C, Forján E, Vílchez C (2009) β-Carotene production enhancement by UV-A radiation in Dunaliella bardawil cultivated in laboratory reactors. J Biosci Bioeng 108:47–51
Mohamed HE, Meene AML, Roberson RW, Vermaas WFJ (2005) Myxoxanthophyll is required for normal cell wall structure and thylakoid organization in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. J Bacteriol 187:6883–6892
Mortensen A (2009) Supplements. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 5, Nutrition and health. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 67–82
Nakanishi K (1991) 11-cis-retinal, a molecule uniquely suited for vision. Pure Appl Chem 63:161–170
Norgård S, Svec WA, Liaaen-Jensen S, Jensen A, Guillard RRL (1974) Chloroplast pigments and algal systematics. Biochem Syst Ecol 2:3–6
Ocampo-Alvarez H, García-Mendoza E, Govindjee (2013) Antagonist effect between violaxanthin and de-epoxidated pigments in nonphotochemical quenching induction in the qE deficient brown alga Macrocystis pyrifera. Biochim Biophys Acta 1827:427–437
Ohi Y, Namiki T, Katatae M, Tsukahara H, Kitamura A (2009) Effects of the addition of the natural carotenoid astaxanthin from microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis on the physical properties of bread. Nippon Shokuhin Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi 56:579–584
Orosa M, Franqueira D, Cid A, Abalde J (2005) Analysis and enhancement of astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus pluvialis. Bioresour Technol 96:373–378
Palinska KA, Deventer B, Hariri K, Łotocka M (2011) A taxonomic study on Phormidium-group (cyanobacteria) based on morphology, pigments, RAPD molecular markers and RFLP analysis of the 16S rRNA gene fragment. Fottea 11:41–51
Pennington FC, Haxo FT, Borch G, Liaaen-Jensen S (1985) Carotenoids of Cryptophyceae. Biochem Syst Ecol 13:215–219
Pennington F, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1988) Carotenoid distribution patterns in Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms). Biochem Syst Ecol 16:589–592
Pereira MG, Icely J, Mudge S, Newton A, Rodrigues R (2013) Temporal and spatial variation of phytoplankton pigments in the western part of Ria Formosa Lagoon, Southern Portugal. Environ Forensic 8:205–220
Pfander H, Riesen R (1995) Chromatography: Part IV high-performance liquid chromatography. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1A, Isolation and analysis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 145–190
Pinckney JL, Millie DF, Heukelem LV (2011) Update on filtration, storage and extraction solvents. In: Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 627–635
Poole CF (2003) The essence of chromatography. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 925 pp
Raman V, Ravi S (2011) Effect of salicylic acid and methyl jasmonate on antioxidant systems of Haematococcus pluvialis. Acta Physiol Plant 33:1043–1049
Reuss N, Conley DJ, Bianchi TS (2005) Preservation conditions and the use of sediment pigments as a tool for recent ecological reconstruction in four Northern European estuaries. Mar Chem 95:283–302
Řezanka T, Nedbalová L, Sigler K, Cepák V (2008) Identification of astaxanthin diglucoside diesters from snow alga Chlamydomonas nivalis by liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Phytochemistry 69:479–490
Řezanka T, Nedbalová L, Kolouchová I, Sigler K (2013) LC–MS/APCI identification of glucoside esters and diesters of astaxanthin from the snow alga Chlamydomonas nivalis including their optical stereoisomers. Phytochemistry 88:34–42
Roesler CS, Culbertson CW, Etheridge SM, Goericke R, Kiene RP, Miller LG, Oremland RS (2002) Distribution, production, and ecophysiology of Picocystis strain ML in Mono Lake, California. Limnol Oceanogr 47:440–452
Rotenstreich Y, Harats D, Shaish A, Pras E, Belkin M (2010) Treatment of a retinal dystrophy, fundus albipunctatus, with oral 9-cis-β-carotene. Br J Ophthalmol 94:616–621
Roy S, Llewellyn CA, Egeland ES, Johnsen G (eds.) (2011) Phytoplankton pigments: characterization, chemotaxonomy and applications in oceanography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 845 pp
Saha M, Rempt M, Grosser K, Pohnert G, Weinberger F (2011) Surface-associated fucoxanthin mediates settlement of bacterial epiphytes on the rockweed Fucus vesiculosus. Biofouling 27:423–433
Salguero A, Morena B, Vigara J, Vega JM, Vilchez C, León R (2003) Carotenoids as protective response against oxidative damage in Dunaliella bardawil. Biomol Eng 20:249–253
Sasa T, Takaichi S, Hatakeyama N, Watanabe MM (1992) A novel carotenoid ester, loroxanthin dodecenoate, from Pyramimonas parkeae (Prasinophyceae) and a chlorarachniophycean alga. Plant Cell Physiol 33:921–925
Schiedt K (1995) Chromatography: Part III thin-layer chromatography. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1A, Isolation and analysis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 131–144
Schiedt K, Liaaen-Jensen S (1995) Isolation and analysis. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 1A, Isolation and analysis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 81–108
Schmidt M, Horn S, Flieger K, Ehlers K, Wilhelm C, Schnetter R (2012) Synchroma pusillum sp. nov. and other new algal isolates with chloroplast complexes confirm the Synchromophyceae (Ochrophyta) as a widely distributed group of amoeboid algae. Protist 163:544–559
Schubert N, García-Mendoza E, Pacheco-Ruiz I (2006) Carotenoid composition of marine red algae. J Phycol 42:1208–1216
Schubert N, García-Mendoza E, Enríquez S (2011) Is the photo-acclimatory response of Rhodophyta conditioned by the species carotenoid profile? Limnol Oceanogr 56:2347–2361
Schwender J, Zeidler J, Gröner R, Müller C, Focke M, Braun S, Lichtenthaler FW, Lichtenthaler HK (1997) Incorporation of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose into isoprene and phytol by higher plants and algae. FEBS Lett 414:129–134
Seoane S, Zapata M, Orive E (2009) Growth rates and pigment patterns of haptophytes isolated from estuarine waters. J Sea Res 62:286–294
Shi DY, Han LJ, Sun J, Li S, Wang SJ, Yang YC, Fan X, Shi JG (2005) A new halogenated biindole and a new apo-carotenone from green alga Chaetomorpha basiretorsa [sic!] Setchell. Chin Chem Lett 16:777–780
Sigaud-Kutner TCS, Neto AMP, Pinto E, Colepicolo P (2005) Diel activities of antioxidant enzymes, photosynthetic pigments and malondialdehyde content in stationary-phase cells of Tetraselmis gracilis (Prasinophyceae). Aquat Biol 82:239–249
Six C, Thomas JC, Brahamsha B, Lemoine Y, Partensky F (2004) Photophysiology of the marine cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. WH8102, a new model organism. Aquat Microb Ecol 35:17–29
Solovchenko AE (2012) Physiological role of neutral lipid accumulation in eukaryotic microalgae under stresses. Russ J Plant Physiol 59:167–176
Solovchenko AE (2013) Physiology and adaptive significance of secondary carotenogenesis in green microalgae. Russ J Plant Physiol 60:1–13
Sommer TR, D’Souza FML, Morrissy NM (1992) Pigmentation of adult rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, using the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis. Aquaculture 106:63–74
Spangenberg B, Poole CF, Weins C (2011) Quantitative thin-layer chromatography: a practical survey. Springer, Heidelberg, 388 pp
Stahl E (1962) Dünnschicht-Chromatographie: Ein Laboratoriumshandbuch. Prepared by Bolliger HR, Brenner M, Gänshirt H, Mangold HK, Seiler H, Stahl E, Waldi D. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 534 pp. (English translation available)
Stauber JL, Jeffrey SW (1988) Photosynthetic pigments in fifty-one species of marine diatoms. J Phycol 24:158–172
Strand A, Herstad O, Liaaen-Jensen S (1998) Fucoxanthin metabolites in egg yolks of laying hens. Comp Biochem Physiol A 119:963–974
Stransky H, Hager A (1970) Das Carotinoidmuster und die Verbreitung des lichtinduzierten Xanthophyllcyclus in verschiedenen Algenklassen. II. Xanthophyceae. Arch Microbiol 71:164–190
Sugimura R, Suda M, Sho A, Takahashi T, Sashima T, Abe M, Hosokawa M, Miyashita K (2012) Stability of fucoxanthin in dried Undaria pinnatifida (Wakame) and baked products (scones) containing wakame powder. Food Sci Technol Res 18:687–693
Sun N, Wang Y, Li Y-T, Huang J-C, Chen F (2008) Sugar-based growth, astaxanthin accumulation and carotenogenic transcription of heterotrophic Chlorella zofingiensis (Chlorophyta). Process Biochem 43:1288–1292
Suzuki M, Watanabe K, Fujiwara S, Kurasawa T, Wakabayashi T, Tsuzuki M, Iguchi K, Yamori T (2003) Isolation of peridinin-related norcarotenoids with cell growth-inhibitory activity from the cultured dinoflagellate of Symbiodinium sp., a symbiont of the Okinawan soft coral Clavularia viridis, and analysis of fatty acids of the dinoflagellate. Chem Pharm Bull 51:724–727
Suzuki K, Kuwata A, Yoshie N, Shibata A, Kawanobe K, Saito H (2011) Population dynamics of phytoplankton, heterotrophic bacteria, and viruses during the spring bloom in the western subarctic Pacific. Deep-Sea Res I 58:575–589
Sweeney BM (1976) Pedinomonas noctilucae (Prasinophyceae), the flagellate symbiotic in Noctiluca (Dinophyceae) in Southeast Asia. J Phycol 12:460–464
Takaichi S, Mochimaru M, Uchida H, Murakami A, Hirose E, Maoka T, Tsuchiya T, Mimuro M (2012) Opposite chilarity [sic!] of α-carotene in unusual cyanobacteria with unique chlorophylls, Acaryochloris and Prochlorococcus. Plant Cell Physiol 53:1881–1888
Tang G, Russell RM (2009) Carotenoids as provitamin A. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 5, Nutrition and health. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 149–172
Teimouri M, Amirkolaie AK, Yeganeh S (2013) The effects of Spirulina platensis meal as a feed supplement on growth performance and pigmentation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 396–399:14–19
Telfer A, Pascal A, Gall A (2008) Carotenoids in photosynthesis. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, vol 4, Natural functions. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 265–308
Urikura I, Sugawara T, Hirata T (2011) Protective effect of fucoxanthin against UVB-induced skin photoaging in hairless mice. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 75:757–760
Vetter W, Englert G, Rigassi N, Schwieter U (1971) Spectroscopic methods. In: Isler O, Gutmann H, Solms U (eds) Carotenoids. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 189–266
Vílchez C, Forján E, Cuaresma M, Bédmar F, Garbayo I, Vega JM (2011) Marine carotenoids: biological functions and commercial applications. Mar Drugs 9:319–333
Wakahama T, Laza-Martínez A, Taha AIBHM, Okuyama H, Yoshida K, Kogame K, Awai K, Kawachi M, Maoka T, Takaichi S (2012) Structural confirmation of a unique carotenoid lactoside, P457, in Symbiodinium sp. strain NBRC 104787 isolated from a sea anemone and its distribution in dinoflagellates and various marine organisms. J Phycol 48:1392–1402
Walker TL, Purton S, Becker DK, Collet C (2005) Microalgae as bioreactors. Plant Cell Rep 24:629–641
Wang Y, Liu Z, Qin S (2013) Effects of iron on fatty acid and astaxanthin accumulation in mixotrophic Chromochloris zofingiensis. Biotechnol Lett 35:351–357
Watson SB (2003) Cyanobacterial and eukaryotic algal odour compounds: signals or by-products? A review of their biological activity. Phycologia 42:332–350
Weesepoel Y, Vincken J-P, Pop RM, Liu K, Gruppen H (2013) Sodiation as a tool for enhancing the diagnostic value of MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS spectra of complex astaxanthin ester mixtures from Haematococcus pluvialis. J Mass Spectrom 48:862–874
Yacobi YZ (2003) Seasonal variation in pigmentation of the dinoflagellate Peridinium gatunense (Dinophyceae) in Lake Kinneret, Israel. Freshw Biol 48:1850–1858
Yacobi YZ, Ostrovsky I (2008) Downward flux of organic matter and pigments in Lake Kinneret (Israel): relationships between phytoplankton and the material collected in sediment traps. J Plankton Res 30:1189–1202
Yokohama Y (1981) Distribution of the green light-absorbing pigments siphonaxanthin and siphonein in marine green algae. Bot Mar 24:637–640
Yokohama Y (1983) A xanthophyll characteristic of deep-water green algae lacking siphonaxanthin. Bot Mar 26:45–48
Yokohama Y, Hirata T, Misonou T, Tanaka J, Yokochi H (1992) Distribution of green light-harvesting pigments, siphonaxanthin and siphonein, and their precursors in marine green algae. Jpn J Phycol 40:25–31
Yoshii Y, Takaichi S, Maoka T, Inouye I (2003) Photosynthetic pigment composition in the primitive green alga Mesostigma viride (Prasinophyceae): phylogenetic and evolutionary implications. J Phycol 39:570–576
Yoshii H, Yoshii Y, Asai T, Furukawa T, Takaichi S, Fujibayashi Y (2012) Photo-excitation of carotenoids causes cytotoxicity via singlet oxygen production. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 417:640–645
Young A (1993) Factors that affect the carotenoid composition of higher plants and algae. In: Young A, Britton G (eds) Carotenoids in photosynthesis. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 160–205
Young A, Britton G (eds) (1993) Carotenoids in photosynthesis. Chapman and Hall, London, 498 pp
Zapata M, Jeffrey SW, Wright SW, Rodríguez F, Garrido JL, Clementson L (2004) Photosynthetic pigments in 37 species (65 strains) of Haptophyta: implications for oceanography and chemotaxonomy. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 270:83–102
Zapata M, Fraga S, Rodríguez F, Garrido JL (2012) Pigment-based chloroplast types in dinoflagellates. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 465:33–52
Zhao Y, Guan F, Wang G, Miao L, Ding J, Guan G, Li Y, Hui B (2011) Astaxantin preparation by lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of its esters from Haematococcus pluvialis algal extracts. J Food Sci 76:C643–C650
Acknowledgements
The library at University of Nordland gets my sincere thanks for once again have provided several hundreds article copies and also some books loaned from other libraries. Always promptly, always with a smile, never questioning why I need it or why I need all that much. Luckily for you, this time, most of the literature needed was available through electronic access, and not so many had to be ordered manually.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Egeland, E.S. (2016). Carotenoids. In: Borowitzka, M., Beardall, J., Raven, J. (eds) The Physiology of Microalgae. Developments in Applied Phycology, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24945-2_20
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24945-2_20
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-24943-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-24945-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)