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The Policy Context in the US, Germany, and Norway

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Health Inequities Related to Intimate Partner Violence Against Women

Part of the book series: Social Disparities in Health and Health Care ((SDHHC))

Abstract

The present chapter begins with a justification of the selection of the US, Germany, and Norway as country cases. Following this is a description of each country separately, beginning with background information on the prevalence of IPV and the history of policies on violence against women and the services available. Afterward is a brief overview of aspects of the welfare state insofar as they influence the first policy intervention point of the conceptual framework: the redistribution of resources across society. Specifically, this looks at institutional arrangements aimed at decreasing poverty and economic inequality among women, such as unemployment benefits, sickness benefits, and benefits directed at single, low-income mothers. Second, family policies influencing the second policy intervention point are highlighted: women’s resources for establishing independent households. This details parental leave, childcare provision, and the organization of the school day, family, and child allowances, flexible working time arrangements, and taxation systems. Finally, the situation for each case in terms of the third policy intervention point is described: access to health care. This focuses on entitlement to care, availability of health care providers, and affordability of out-of-pocket payments by patients. The chapter closes with a comparison of the policy contexts as they may affect IPV survivors.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Sect. 3.1 for a discussion of various family policy typologies.

  2. 2.

    VAWA was reauthorized in 2000, 2005, and 2013. Although put up for reauthorization in 2012, there was not enough bipartisan support for VAWA to pass (Modi et al. 2014). The bill stalled due to Republicans’ objection to additional measures protecting same-sex couples and undocumented immigrants. While the 2013 reauthorization included expanded measures for Native Americans, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, gay, and queer individuals, and victims of human trafficking, it does not protect IPV survivors who are undocumented immigrants.

  3. 3.

    In 1997, ‘welfare reform’ replaced AFDC with block grants to individual states, known as the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program. TANF became an assistance program with a maximum 5-year lifetime limit, designed to reduce the ‘dependency’ of low-income families on governmental cash assistance (Christopher 2004; Kamerman and Kahn 2001; Olsen 2007). Beneficiaries were required to be employed within 2 years of qualifying for TANF benefits, and low-income women with children were expected to be in the labor force as soon as three months after a child’s birth (Kamerman and Kahn 2001).

  4. 4.

    A number of important reforms to US health care were enacted with this law. At the time of this writing, these reforms are still in the process of being rolled out, the most central tenets of which essentially require all Americans to have health insurance, as well as the regulation and reduction of health care costs, which aim to improve access. However, since the effects of PPACA are not yet clear and because the US data used in the analysis were collected in the mid-1990s, this case description focuses solely on health care in the US prior to PPACA.

  5. 5.

    According to the PPACA’s employer mandate, today employers with more than 50 employees are required to offer health insurance to their full-time employees or else face a financial penalty.

  6. 6.

    PPACA has expanded Medicaid eligibility to also include individuals without dependent children, although individual states are able to opt out of Medicaid expansion if they choose.

  7. 7.

    In 1995, the Federal Poverty Level was $7470 for an unmarried individual and $15150 for a family of four (US Department of Health and Human Services, n.d). This is approximately the equivalent of $11,658 and $23,643, respectively in 2015 (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, n.d.).

  8. 8.

    As of January 2005, the Hartz IV Reforms created a differentiation known as Arbeitslosengeld I and Arbeitslosengeld II. Arbeitslosengeld I remained similar to the above described ‘unemployment benefits’. However, Arbeitslosengeld II combined the previous unemployment assistance benefits (Arbeitslosenhilfe) with social assistance benefits (Sozialhilfe) to create a single means-tested income-replacement benefit for those unable to work (OECD 2006). The reform also created stricter means testing and time limitations on Arbeitslosengeld II for long-term unemployed workers. However, since the German data used in the analysis were collected in 2003–2004, this case description focuses on policy prior to the Hartz IV Reforms.

  9. 9.

    This version of parental leave (Erziehungsurlaub) changed dramatically in 2007 with the introduction of an income-replacement benefit (Elterngeld), which entitled parents to 67 % of their previous income (up to a ceiling of €1800/month) for 14 months (12 months reserved for the mother and two months for the father) (Honekamp 2008; Leitner 2011; Ray 2008). Alternatively, parents could opt for 33 % of their previous income for twice the usual length. Moreover, parents were also entitled to the entire 3 years of leave, but without income replacement for the second or third year, depending on the level of replacement chosen.

  10. 10.

    Beginning in 2005, reforms were introduced to increase the number of childcare places available to children under the age of three, and establishing a right to childcare at the age of one (Leitner 2011).

  11. 11.

    In 2006, this was increased to a tax allowance covering two-thirds of childcare costs up to a maximum of €4000.

  12. 12.

    Since the 2005 reforms, the percentage of children under three in childcare has gradually increased to 25.4 % in 2011, exceeding the original goal of 17.4 % set out with the reform (Honekamp 2008; OECD 2014).

  13. 13.

    Starting with the SHI Modernization Act of 2004, reforms included co-payments applied to outpatient doctor’s visits (on a quarterly basis), prescription medications, and hospital care (Busse and Riesberg 2004). Reforms also eliminated exemptions based on poverty and made eligibility for partial exemptions stricter.

  14. 14.

    The NIS basic amount is adjusted annually to match inflation and is used for the calculation of many NIS benefits.

  15. 15.

    These rights were extended to single fathers in 1980 (Syltevik 1999).

  16. 16.

    The activity requirement may be waived if the parent or the child is sick, or no public childcare places are available.

  17. 17.

    This has since grown to 97 % of children aged three to five, and nearly 80 % of children between the ages of one and two. Approximately 93 % currently attend childcare more than 32 h per week (Statistik Sentralbyrå [SSB] 2013).

  18. 18.

    However, as of 2012, only parents of one-year-old children are eligible (Ellingsæter 2012).

  19. 19.

    Over a decade later, only about one-quarter of children under 3 years old are being cared for using the cash-for-care benefits (Ellingsæter 2012).

  20. 20.

    Hours worked above the maximum may not be made compulsory.

  21. 21.

    This rate has continued to rise and today Norway has a very high rate of physician coverage at 4.07 physicians per 1000 inhabitants (second in Europe only to Austria) (WHO Regional Office for Europe 2014).

  22. 22.

    The adult dental services covered by the NIS are, however, limited. Therefore, the majority of dental care service still takes place on the private market with patients paying in full for treatment received. There is no regulation of dental care costs for adults (Johnsen 2006).

  23. 23.

    As seen in Chap. 2, this may however, only prove to be the case as long as women’s status does not exceed that of their partners’.

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    Mandi M. Larsen

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Larsen, M.M. (2016). The Policy Context in the US, Germany, and Norway. In: Health Inequities Related to Intimate Partner Violence Against Women. Social Disparities in Health and Health Care. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29565-7_4

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