The Influence of Culture on Leader–Member Exchange and Job Satisfaction of Subordinates: A Vietnamese Study

Abstract

Experienced human resource professionals recognize the importance of maintaining and promoting employees’ job satisfaction in talent management and retention. Scholars have done extensive research on job satisfaction of workers in developing economies in North America and Western Europe. However, there is limited research available on workers in developing countries, specifically workers in contemporary Vietnam. The chapter investigates Hofstede’s six cultural dimensions of Vietnamese employees on individual levels. The chapter aims to study the relationships between individual cultural dimensions and the quality of the leader–member exchange and between the leader–member exchange (LMX) quality and job satisfaction of Vietnamese employees. Studying the influence of culture on job satisfaction of workers in developing nations is important for both domestic and international managers. Managerial implications, limitations, and future research are also discussed.

Appendices

Appendix A: Measurement Scales

1.1 Power Distance Belief Scale

Power distance belief
	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
1. People in higher positions should make most decisions without consulting people in lower positions	1	2	3	4	5
2. People in higher positions should not ask the opinions of people in lower positions too frequently	1	2	3	4	5
3. People in higher positions should avoid social interaction with people in lower positions	1	2	3	4	5
4. People in lower positions should not disagree with decisions by people in higher positions	1	2	3	4	5
5. People in higher positions should not delegate important tasks to people in lower positions	1	2	3	4	5

1. Source: Dorfman, P. W., & Howell, J. P. (1988). Dimensions of national culture and effective leadership patterns: Hofstede revisited. Advances in International Comparative Management, 3, 127–150

1.2 Collectivism–Individualism Scale

Collectivism
	Strongly disagree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly agree
1. Individuals should sacrifice self-interest for the group	1	2	3	4	5
2. Individuals should stick with the group even through difficulties	1	2	3	4	5
3. Group welfare is more important than individual rewards	1	2	3	4	5
4. Group success is more important than individual success	1	2	3	4	5
5. Individuals should only pursue their goals after considering the welfare of the group	1	2	3	4	5
6. Group loyalty should be encouraged even if individual goals suffer	1	2	3	4	5

1. Source: Yoo, B., N. Donthu and T. Lenartowicz, 2011. Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: Development and validation of CVSCALE. J. Int. Consumer Market, 23: 193–210. DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2011.578059

1.3 Masculinity Scale

Masculinity
	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
1. It is more important for men to have a professional career than it is for women	1	2	3	4	5
2. Men usually solve problems with logical analysis; women usually solve problems with intuition	1	2	3	4	5
3. Solving difficult problems usually requires an active, forcible approach, which is typical of men	1	2	3	4	5
4. There are some jobs that a man can always do better than a woman	1	2	3	4	5

1. Source: Yoo, B., N. Donthu and T. Lenartowicz, 2011. Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: Development and validation of CVSCALE. J. Int. Consumer Market, 23: 193–210. DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2011.578059

1.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Scale

Uncertainty avoidance
	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
1. It is important to have instructions spelled out in detail so that I always know what I’m expected to do	1	2	3	4	5
2. It is important to closely follow instructions and procedures	1	2	3	4	5
3. Rules and regulations are important because they inform me of what is expected of me	1	2	3	4	5
4. Standardized work procedures are helpful	1	2	3	4	5
5. Instructions for operations are important	1	2	3	4	5

1. Source: Yoo, B., N. Donthu and T. Lenartowicz, 2011. Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: Development and validation of CVSCALE. J. Int. Consumer Market, 23: 193–210. DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2011.578059

1.5 Long-Term Orientation Scale

Long-term orientation
	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
1. I believe in careful management of money (thrift)	1	2	3	4	5
2. I believe in going on resolutely in spite of opposition (persistence)	1	2	3	4	5
3. I believe in personal steadiness and stability	1	2	3	4	5
4. I believe in long-term planning	1	2	3	4	5
5. I believe in giving up today’s fun for cusses in the future	1	2	3	4	5
6. I believe working hard to success in the future	1	2	3	4	5

1. Source: Yoo, B., N. Donthu and T. Lenartowicz, 2011. Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: Development and validation of CVSCALE. J. Int. Consumer Market, 23: 193–210. DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2011.578059

1.6 Indulgence Scale

Indulgence
	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
1. I believe in personal life control	1	2	3	4	5
2. Freedom of speech is important	1	2	3	4	5
3. Leisure is highly important	1	2	3	4	5
4. I remember positive emotions	1	2	3	4	5
5. More people should be actively involved in sports	1	2	3	4	5
6. Maintaining order in the nation is not a high priority	1	2	3	4	5

1. Adapted from Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

1.7 Perceived Relationship Between Supervisor and Subordinates Scale

LMX 7 questionnaire
	1	2	3	4	5
1. You know where you stand with your supervisor and you usually know how satisfied your supervisor is with what you do	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
2. Your supervisor understand your job problems and needs	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
3. Your supervisor recognizes your potential	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
4. I have enough confidence in my supervisor that I would defend and justify his or her decision if he or she were not present to do so	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree
5. Your working relationship with your supervisor is effective	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree

1. Source: “Relationship-Based Approach to Leadership: Development of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership Over 25 Years: Applying a Multi-Level, Multi-Domain Perspective,” by G. B. Graen and M. Uhl-Bien, 1995, Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. Copyright © 1995

1.8 Perceived Job Satisfaction Scale

Perceived job satisfaction
	Very dissatisfied	Dissatisfied	I can’t decide	Satisfied	Very satisfied
1. The way my boss handles his/her workers	1	2	3	4	5
2. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions	1	2	3	4	5
3. The way my job provides for steady employment	1	2	3	4	5
4. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities	1	2	3	4	5
5. My pay and the amount of work I do	1	2	3	4	5
6. The chance for advancement on this job	1	2	3	4	5
7. The working conditions	1	2	3	4	5
8. The way my coworkers get along with each other	1	2	3	4	5
9. The praise I get for doing a good job	1	2	3	4	5
10. The feelings of accomplishment I get from my job	1	2	3	4	5

1. Source: D. J. Weiss, R.V. Dawis, G.W. England, and L.H. Lofquist, Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Industrial Relations Center, 1967). Evaluated in J.L. Price and C.W. Mueller, Handbook of Organizational Measurement (Marshfield, MA: Pitman, 1986), pp. 228–31

1.9 Background Information

Appendix B: Outer Loadings (Point Estimations and T-values) of the Model