Abstract
What builds effective intergovernmental science organizations? They need to reflect the priorities of their member nations as well as the interests of their scientists, while working towards a unified vision. A fundamental requirement is to effectively communicate these ideas. The organization must encourage member countries to commit to, participate in, and benefit from its activities, and yet it does not have any authority to require them to do so. Though intergovernmental organizations require continuing support of their contracting countries, they must withstand political, economic, and social changes to fulfill their missions. If the organization fails to be responsive to its members’ interests, it risks losing government commitment and ability to achieve its goals. It may even risk its existence and the benefits that such arrangements can bring. Each organization must continually build and reassess its collaborations across countries, institutions and programs to make the most of initiatives and expertise.
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Notes
- 1.
Two significant institutional developments in PICES were when it helped incorporate regional perspectives into both GLOBEC, through CCCC, and into IPCC Assessment Report 5.
- 2.
In 2006, the governing council formed a one-year study group to reassess the relationship between the organization and non-member countries. PICES Annual Report (2006) 06/A/6.
- 3.
PICES Annual Report (2009). GC 2009/A/5 PICES Rules of Procedure.
- 4.
NOWPAP was established in 1994 as a part of the Regional Seas Program of UNEP.
- 5.
PICES Annual Report (2000). Report of SB.
- 6.
PICES Annual Report (2003). Agenda Item 7. Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and PICES.
- 7.
ICES organized the first one in Denmark in 1961. Thirty-three years later, the 2nd was held in Plymouth, UK, with ICES and GLOBEC as co-sponsors. The 3rd in 2003 is the first that PICES co-sponsored with ICES and GLOBEC, followed by the 4th (2007) in Hiroshima, Japan. By the 5th (2011) symposium in PucĂłn, Chile, GLOBEC had ended, so PICES and ICES became primary sponsors, and they continue with the 6th (2016) symposium in Bergen, Norway.
- 8.
They have had the same three co-sponsors joined by local host co-sponsors. The 2nd (2012) was held in Yeosu, Korea; the 3rd (2015) in Santos City, Brazil, and the 4th is planned for 2018. IMBER has co-sponsored them all.
- 9.
ICES held the very first early career scientist workshops and topic sessions long before PICES existed. The 1st joint conference on “Frontiers in marine science” was in 2007 in Baltimore, MD, USA. The 2nd on “Oceans of change” was held in 2012 in Mallorca, Spain, and the 3rd on “Climate, oceans and society” is scheduled for 2017 in Busan, Korea.
- 10.
PICES signed MOUs with IOC (1994); ICES (1998); NPAFC (1998); and IPHC (2000).
- 11.
2010 Powerpoint presentation by Anne B. Hollowed (USA), Suam Kim (Korea) and selected symposium participants on “Global Perspectives on Climate Change Effects on Fish and Fisheries: messages from an ICES/PICES/FAO Symposium.”
- 12.
A good summary was prepared by Steve Murawski for PICES Press 18 (2010): 2, pp. 5–6. Also ICES Journal of Marine Science from Sendai symposium.
- 13.
Symposium conveners for the second symposium in Yeosu were Suam Kim (local convener), Hiroaki Saito (PICES), Svein Sundby (ICES), Luis Valdés (IOC-UNESCO). The third symposium conveners were Manuel Berange (ICES), Jackie King (PICES), Alexander Turra (local convener) and Luis Valdés (IOC).
- 14.
IOC is the link between member states and the UN agreements and conventions on ocean and coastal matters. All PICES countries are now on the executive council of IOC.
- 15.
Remarks by Luis Valdés, IOC at the Opening Session. PICES Annual Report (2010). OS p. 9.
- 16.
GOOS is co-sponsored by IOC, WMO, UNEP, and ICSU.
- 17.
The Argo system grew out of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) and was implemented through the Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) program and the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE). For visualization of data see the Global Marine Argo Atlas at http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/Marine_Atlas.html which allows users to compare Argo data from over 3000 floats to other global data sets.
- 18.
- 19.
PICES joined GCOS (Global Climate Observing System), JCOMM (Joint WMO-IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology), GOOS, WCRP, SOLAS, IMBER, GLOBEC, and POGO (Partnership for Observation of the Global Oceans) as an endorsing organization for the framework. See http://www.oceanobs09.net.
- 20.
Its eight sponsoring agencies are IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, WMO, WHO, IAEA, UN and UNEP. It supports marine environmental assessments, analyses, and reviews of topics, and identifies emerging issues of the marine environment. It changed its name from marine pollution to environmental protection when it expanded its scope.
- 21.
Study Group on Marine Pollutants (SG-MP; 2011–2013), chair Peter Ross (Canada). Emerging Topics in Marine Pollution (WG 31; 2014–2016), parent MEQ, co-chairs Peter Ross, Won Joon (Korea), Olga Lukyanova (Russia).
- 22.
PICES Scientific Report (2014): 46. Report of the Study Group on Marine Pollutants. Edited by Peter Ross.
- 23.
http://www.ices.dk/explore-us/who-we-are/Pages/Who-we-are.aspx. Accessed March 2016.
- 24.
The European Union debated setting up its own agency for scientific advice on fisheries management but opted to rely on ICES. Despite that new governance structure, the ICES member states that joined the EU retained their status as contracting parties in ICES, and ICES maintained its status as an independent, politically neutral body for scientific advice.
- 25.
PICES Annual Report (1998). PICES-ICES Memorandum of Understanding (MOU). 98/A/4.
- 26.
ICES Annual Report (2000), p. 11. Scott Parsons served as ICES president from 1997–2000 and helped establish the advisory committee on ecosystems. Parsons suggested associate membership in ICES for countries outside the North Atlantic zone to allow ICES to grow. Such associate membership could be a cross between full membership as a contracting party, and observer status, so that they could participate in the marine science aspects of ICES without the advisory component.
- 27.
Email correspondence with ICES Head of Science Program Adolf (Adi) Kellerman, 4 February 2016. Participants at the ICES Annual Science Conference (2013) total 732; academic 194; (2014) total 550; academic 154; (2015) total 700; academic 235.
- 28.
PICES Annual Report (2003).
- 29.
The joint theme sessions began at the 2005 ICES Annual Science Conference and have been yearly except for 2012 (PICES completed special sessions on PICES website).
- 30.
PICES Annual Report (2008). Report of Governing Council.
- 31.
Joint PICES-ICES Study Group on Developing a Framework for Scientific Cooperation in Northern Hemisphere Marine Science (SG-SP; 2009–2011), co-chairs Manuel Barange (UK), Sinjae Yoo (Korea).
- 32.
PICES Press 20Â (2012).
- 33.
Joint PICES-ICES Working Group on Forecasting Climate Change Impacts on Fish and Shellfish (WG 25; 2008–2011), parents FIS and POC, co-chairs Manuel Barange (UK), Anne Hollowed (USA), Suam Kim (Korea), Harald Loeng (Norway).
- 34.
The 2010 symposium in Sendai, Japan on “Climate change effects on fish and fisheries: Forecasting impacts, assessing ecosystem responses and evaluating management strategies,” was also supported by Fisheries Research Agency of Japan, Hokkaido University, and 15 other agencies and organizations, a testament to the importance of the topic.
- 35.
PICES Press 18Â (2010).
- 36.
The 2007–2009 study group on communication had suggested the symposium as a pilot for engaging news media with the help of the local organizing committee.
- 37.
Joint PICES-ICES working group on Climate Change and Biologically-driven Ocean Carbon Sequestration (WG 33; 2015–2018). A second joint working group was between PICES and the International Scientific Committee for Tuna and Tuna-like Species in the North Pacific Ocean (ISC) on Ocean Conditions and the Distribution and Productivity of Highly Migratory Fish (WG 34; 2015–2018).
- 38.
Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms is a product of an IOC-SCOR research program that produced a summary for policy makers.
- 39.
PICES and ICES had already developed a strategic plan for more substantial collaborations three years earlier, through the Joint PICES-ICES Study Group on Developing a Framework for Scientific Cooperation in Northern Hemisphere Marine Science (SG-SP; 2009–2011), co-chairs Sinjae Yoo (PICES), Manuel Barange (ICES).
- 40.
INPFC operated between 1952 and 1992. The application of UNCLOS and the 200-mile exclusive economic zones prompted its reorganization in 1992 as the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC), adding the Russian Federation and the Republic of Korea (2003) to make five members.
- 41.
The Convention for the Conservation of Anadromous Stocks in the North Pacific Ocean established NPAFC to operate north of 33°N, outside of coastal states’ EEZs. It shares country membership with PICES except for China. UNCLOS called for a maximum sustainable yield (MSY) approach to managing fisheries.
- 42.
NPAFC-PICES Framework for Enhanced Scientific Cooperation in the North Pacific Ocean. 28 April 2014.
- 43.
PICES Annual Report (1994). Endnote 3, Excerpt from the NPAFC Committee on Scientific Research and Statistics 1994 Annual Report.
- 44.
See NPAFC Technical Report 2. 2000 International Workshop on Factors Affecting Production of Juvenile Salmon: Comparative Studies on Juvenile Salmon Ecology between the East and West North Pacific Ocean. October 29, 2000, Tokyo, Japan. Also “A Review of the Research on the Early Marine Period of Pacific Salmon by Canada, Japan, Russia, and the United States,” NPAFC Bulletin (2003) 3.
- 45.
“Beyond El Niño: A conference on Pacific climate variability and marine ecosystem impacts, from the Tropics to the Arctic,” in 2000. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), Interim Scientific Committee for Tuna and Tuna-like Species (ISC), International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC), and the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC).
- 46.
The meeting cosponsors were IBSFC, ICES, NASCO, NPAFC and PICES, and the papers were published in NPAFC Technical Report (2002) 4 “Causes of Marine Mortality of Salmon in the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans and in the Baltic Sea.”
- 47.
See NPAFC Bulletin (2007) 4 “Status of Pacific salmon and their role in North Pacific marine ecosystems.”
- 48.
PICES Annual Report (2007). Relations with international scientific organizations and programs.
- 49.
NPAFC Doc. 1255, 2010; available at www.npafc.org.
- 50.
Joint NPAFC-PICES Study Group on Scientific Cooperation in the North Pacific Ocean (SG-SC-NP; 2013–2014), parent SB, co-chairs Jim Irvine (Canada), Elizabeth Logerwell (USA). In 2014, SG-SC-NP agreed on a formal framework to guide, develop, implement, and monitor activities between PICES and NPAFC.
- 51.
Vladimir Radchenko served as chair of BIO, and represented Russia on the PICES Governing Council, before becoming executive director of NPAFC in 2013.
- 52.
The UN launched the Regional Seas Program (RSP) in 1974 to encourage sustainable management of the coastal and marine environment, prompted by the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden.
- 53.
The four regional activity centers, established between 2000 and 2002, are on Special Monitoring and Coastal Environment Assessment, Data and Information Network, Marine Environmental Emergency Preparedness and Response, and Pollution Monitoring.
- 54.
NOWPAP website http://cearac.nowpap.org/nowpap/index.html.
- 55.
NOWPAP WG 3 on HAB, and WG 4 on remote sensing. The joint training courses were in 2007, 2008, 2011 and 2013, and were supported by PICES from 2008.
- 56.
HAB database: http://www.cearac-project.org/wg3/hab-ref-db/.
- 57.
PICES, EPA, and USGS supported the production of (Lee and Reusser 2012).
- 58.
Joint PICES-NOWPAP Study Group on Scientific Cooperation in the North Pacific Ocean (SG-SCOOP; 2014–2015), parent SB, chairs Chuanlin Huo (PICES), Alexander Tkalin (NOWPAP).
- 59.
For an account of its early years see (Wolff 2010) as well as the SCOR Proceedings series.
- 60.
Some other SCOR working groups of considerable overlapping interest were WG 118 on New Technologies for Observing Marine Life, and WG 119 on Quantitative Ecosystem Indicators for Fisheries Management. The latter group was particularly valuable for production of NPESR.
- 61.
SCOR-IOC Working Group 119.
- 62.
Ecosystem-based management science and its application to the North Pacific (WG 19; 2004–2009), parents MEQ, FIS, co-chairs Glen Jamieson (Canada), Patricia Livingston (USA). Chang-Ik Zhang (Korea).
- 63.
World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE, 1990–2002). SCOR had many other important programs, such as the Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere Study (TOGA 1985–1994), which improved the capability to predict the occurrence of El Niño events.
- 64.
Future Earth, a new hub for international research on sustainability, is the successor to IGBP.
- 65.
PICES Annual Report (2003). Agenda Item 6. Relations with relevant international organizations.
- 66.
JGOFS (1987–2003) became a core project of IGBP in 1989. When the JGOFS project ended in 2003, its research continued through two new projects, IMBER and SOLAS, now located within Future Earth.
- 67.
Yukihiro Nojiri, NIES, Japan, received the award on behalf of the Trans-Pacific VOS Survey Program, and thanked PICES for its support of carbon work, and other North Pacific partners such as IOS (Canada), NOAA (USA), and IOCCP.
- 68.
Carbon Dioxide in the North Pacific (WG 13; 1997–2001) led to Biogeochemical Data Integration and Synthesis (WG 17; 2001–2005), which produced a guide to best practices in 2007 (Dickson et al. 2007).
- 69.
- 70.
ICSU sponsored the IGBP (1987–2015) to coordinate international research on global and regional-scale interactions between Earth’s biological, chemical and physical processes and their interactions with human systems.
- 71.
GLOBEC completed its activity by the end of 2009. After the completion of GLOBEC, some national and regional activities continued under the IMBER program.
- 72.
The symposium was preceded by an ICES-PICES workshop on the same topic of zooplankton ecology.
- 73.
2007 symposium 4 on natural/social science links; 6 on the Southern Ocean. Symposium 5 sponsored by PICES-GLOBEC was the only topical one on zooplankton production.
- 74.
The 2nd (2002) GLOBEC Open Science meeting in Qingdao, China; the 3rd (2009) in Victoria, Canada.
- 75.
Zooplankton work was published in ICES Journal of Marine Science (2004) 61: 4, pp. 441–737; (2008) 65:3, pp. 277–495, and (2012) 69: 3, pp. 347–491, as well as Deep Sea Research (2010): 57, 7–8.
- 76.
IGBP ended in 2015, with continuation of many projects under Future Earth, a consortium sponsored by the Science and Technology Alliance for Global Sustainability comprising ICSU, the International Social Science Council (ISSC), the Belmont Forum of funding agencies, UNESCO, UNEP, the United Nations University (UNU), and WMO, with its own secretariat (http://www.futureearth.org/secretariat).
- 77.
IMBER built on the IGBP-SCOR Framework for Future Research on Biological and Chemical Aspects of Global Change in the Ocean, and the OCEANS Open Science Conference held in Paris (France) in 2003 (http://www.imber.info/Science/Science-Plan).
- 78.
Mitsutaku Makino and Ian Perry are members of both the IMBER Working Group on Human Dimensions (HDWG), and PICES Section on Human Dimensions (S-HD).
- 79.
For instance, the IMBER scientific steering committee included several PICES scientists, such as Kenneth (Ken) Drinkwater (vice-chair, 2014 – ), Hiroaki Saito (2007–2008), Francisco (Cisco) Werner (vice-chair 2016 – ) and Sinjae Yoo (2009 – ).
- 80.
For example, Sinjae Yoo (IMBER science steering committee member) and Franz Mueter and Sei-ichi Saitoh (ESSAS scientific steering committee co-chairs) represented these projects at PICES 2013.
- 81.
IMBER’s other two regional programs are Integrating Climate and Ecosystem Dynamics (ICED), and Sustained Indian Ocean Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research (SIBER).
- 82.
Eileen Hofmann, Bernard Avril, and Lisa Maddison of IMBER credit Alex Bychkov as a critical supporter of IMBER activities, from finding it funding, to raising its profile within the PICES community. PICES Press 23 (2015). Cisco Werner (USA) is vice-chair (2016 – ) of the IMBER scientific steering committee.
- 83.
PICES has co-sponsored IMBER summer schools in 2010 (Brest, France), 2012 (Ankara, Turkey), 2014 (Shanghai, China), 2016 (Natal, Brazil).
- 84.
ESSAS began with a 10-year lifespan, and because GLOBEC was slated to end in 2009, ESSAS is now part of IMBER. The papers from the symposium were published in a special issue of Deep-Sea Research II (2007) 54: 23–26.
- 85.
PICES Press 19Â (2011).
- 86.
Co-convened by Ken Drinkwater (Norway), Jackie Grebmeier (USA), James Overland (USA), and Sei-Ichi Saitoh (Japan).
- 87.
ESSAS 2nd Open Science Meeting (Seattle, USA 2011). Comparative studies of climate effects on polar and sub-polar ocean ecosystems: progress in observation and prediction. Co-sponsored by PICES, ICES, IMBER and GOOS, along with several other US marine science institutions. Twenty papers were published in a special issue of the ICES Journal of Marine Science (2012) 69. A second special issue was in Marine Ecology Progress Series 469. A third set of papers appeared in Deep Sea Research II (2013) 94.
- 88.
Surface Ocean–Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS 2004 – ) involves 1900 scientists from 75 countries to examine biogeochemical and physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere. SOLAS Science Plan and Implementation Strategy (2004) IGBP Report No. 50, IGBP Secretariat, Stockholm. 88 pp.
- 89.
Advisory Panel on Iron Fertilization Experiment (IFEP; 1998–2007), parent CCCC until 2005, then replaced by BIO, co-chairs Chi Shing (C.S.) Wong (Canada), Shigenobu Takeda (Japan).
- 90.
Papers based on SEEDS and SERIES are listed in PICES Annual Report (2007), IFEP-AP Endnote 3.
- 91.
PICES Annual Report (2010). Report of SB.
- 92.
The 1st PICES-ICES-IOC symposium (2008) on Effects of Climate Change on the World's Oceans in GijĂłn, Spain; 2nd (in conjunction with Ocean Expo 2012) in Yeosu, Korea; 3rd (2015) in Santos City, Brazil.
- 93.
- 94.
United Nations World Ocean Assessment. Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment Including Socioeconomic Aspects. The objective for the Regular Process is found in UNGA Resolution 57/141, (2005) “to improve understanding of the oceans and to develop a global mechanism for delivering science-based information to decision makers and public.”
- 95.
Workshop conveners Keith Criddle (USA), Mitsutaku Makino (Japan), Tom Therriault Canada), Ian Perry (Canada).
- 96.
Chapter 36C, convener Tom Therriault; co-lead members and editors for Part VI Biodiversity, Chul Park (Korea) and Jake Rice (Canada) (Showstack 2012).
- 97.
PICES Annual Report (1999), p. 40.
- 98.
Study Group on PICES Capacity building (SG-CB 2002–2003), chair Warren Wooster (USA).
- 99.
Report of the Science Board for year 2000. For instance, ICES defines a young scientist as 35Â years or younger.
- 100.
The Wooster Award was unveiled at the 10th annual meeting (2001) in Victoria, BC, Canada. Recipients include Michael Mullin (2001), Yutaka Nagata (2002), William Pearcy (2003), Paul LeBlond (2004), Daniel Ware (2005), Makoto Kashiwai (2006), Kenneth Denman (2007), Charles Miller (2008), Kuh Kim (2009), Jeffrey Polovina (2010), Bernard Megrey (2011), Richard Beamish (2012), Vera Alexander (2013), Fangli Qiao (2014), and Anne Hollowed (2015).
- 101.
NOAA Fisheries and the North Pacific Research Board provided support.
- 102.
Skip McKinnell (PICES Secretariat) and Adi Kellermann (ICES Secretariat) coordinated the conference. Franz Mueter, “Conference for early career scientists: An unqualified success.” PICES Press 15 (2007).
- 103.
CREAMS-PICES international workshop on “Model/data inter-comparison for the Japan/East Sea,” 21–23 August 2006 at Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea.
- 104.
PICES held summer schools in 2006 (Korea), 2008 (Japan), 2009 (Korea), 2013 (USA) and 2014 (Korea).
- 105.
NOWPAP-PICES-WESTPAC training courses on remote sensing data analysis (2011; Vladivostok, Russia) and NOWPAP-PICES (2013; Qingdao, China).
- 106.
PICES Annual Report (1993). Agenda, Second Annual Meeting October 25–30, 1993. 93/S/7.
- 107.
2013/A/6: PICES Visiting Scientist Program.
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Tjossem, S. (2017). Integrating International, National and Regional Science into Global Science. In: Fostering Internationalism through Marine Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41435-5_3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41435-5_3
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