Abstract
Our understanding of children and adolescents’ experience of depression has evolved over time, typically guided by the predominant psychological theories and climate. With the advent of DSM-5, research that reflects updated symptomatology of childhood depression was included, and new terminology and diagnoses have emerged. Certain diagnoses, such as disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, are examples of new descriptions of observed clinical concerns, though they have not been added to the DSM nomenclature without controversy. These issues, as well as factors that represent the most up-to-date research on the etiology of mood disorders, are discussed in this chapter. In addition, common comorbidities of childhood depression, developmental impacts, as well as a brief overview of evidence-based treatment options are reviewed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87(1), 49–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49.
Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 213–232. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.213.
Agoston, A. M., & Rudolph, K. D. (2013). Pathways from depressive symptoms to low social status. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(2), 295–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9675-y.
American Psychiatric Association [APA]. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association [APA]. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Angold, A. (1988). Childhood and adolescent depression. II: Research in clinical populations. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 153(4), 476–492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.153.4.476.
Angold, A., & Costello, E. (1993). Depressive comorbidity in children and adolescents: Empirical, theoretical, and methodological issues. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(12), 1779–1791. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.150.12.1779.
Angold, A., Costello, E., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(1), 57–87.
Arborelius, L., Owens, M. J., Plotsky, P. M., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1999). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in depression and anxiety disorders. Journal of Endocrinology, 160, 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1600001.
Asarnow, J. R., Emslie, G., Clarke, G., Wagner, K. D., Spirito, A., Vitiello, B., … Ryan, N. (2009). Treatment of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-resistant depression in adolescents: Predictors and moderators of treatment response. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(3), 330–339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CHI.Ob013e3181977476.
Avenevoli, S., Swendsen, J., He, J. P., Burstein, M., & Merikangas, K. R. (2015). Major depression in the National comorbidity survey–Adolescent Supplement: Prevalence, correlates, and treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(1), 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.010.
Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Edelbrock, C. S., & Smallish, L. (1991). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: III. Mother-child interactions, family conflicts and maternal psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 32, 233–255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00304.x.
Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.
Beck, A. T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 5–37.
Beyers, J., & Loeber, R. (2003). Untangling developmental relations between depressed mood and delinquency in male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(1), 247–266.
Bhalla, R. K., Butters, M. A., Mulsant, B. H., Begley, A. E., Zmuda, M. D., Schoderbek, B., … Becker, J. T. (2006). Persistence of neuropsychologic deficits in the remitted state of late-life depression. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14(5), 419–427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.JGP.0000203130.45421.69.
Bierut, L. J., Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Dinwiddie, S. H., Madden, P. A., Statham, D. J., … Martin, N. G. (1999). Major depressive disorder in a community-based twin sample: Are there different genetic and environmental contributions for men and women? Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(6), 557–563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.6.557.
Bridge, J. A., Iyengar, S., Salary, C. B., Barbe, R. P., Birmaher, B., Pincus, H. A., … Brent, D. A. (2007). Clinical response and risk for reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in pediatric antidepressant treatment: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American Medical Association, 297(15), 1683–1696. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.297.15.1683.
Bohman, H., Jonsson, U., Von Knorring, A. L., Von Knorring, L., Päären, A., & Olsson, G. (2010). Somatic symptoms as a marker for severity in adolescent depression. Acta Paediatrica, 99(11), 1724–1730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01906.x
Burcusa, S. L., & Iacono, W. G. (2007). Risk for recurrence in depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(8), 959–985. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.02.005.
Carlson, G. A., & Cantwell, D. P. (1980). Unmasking masked depression in children and adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 137(4), 445–449.
Carlson, G. A., & Strober, M. (1978). Manic-depressive illness in early adolescence: A study of clinical and diagnostic characteristics in six cases. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17(1), 138–153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-7138(09)62285-8.
Caron, C., & Rutter, M. (1991). Comorbidity in child psychopathology: Concepts, issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1063–1080.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014). [Graph illustration of causes of death in suicide]. WISQARS fatal injuries: Mortality reports. Retrieved from http://webappa.cdc.gov/cgi-bin/broker.exe?_service=v8prod&_server=aspv-wisq-1.cdc.gov&_port=5099&_sessionid=vwx1LwMaO52&_program=wisqars.dd_details10.sas&_service=&type=S&prtfmt=STANDARD&age1=1&age2=18&agegp=1-18&deaths=1785&_debug=0&lcdfmt=customðnicty=0&ranking=10&deathtle=Death.
Chorpita, B. F. (2002). The tripartite model and dimensions of anxiety and depression: An examination of structure in a large school sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(2), 177–190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1014709417132.
Chorpita, B. F., Plummer, C. M., & Moffitt, C. E. (2000). Relations of tripartite dimensions of emotion to childhood anxiety and mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(3), 299–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005152505888.
Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316–336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316.
Clarke, G., & Harvey, A. G. (2012). The complex role of sleep in adolescent depression. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21(2), 385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2012.01.006.
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for children and adolescents: Treatment applications. New York: The Guilford Press.
Copeland, W. E., Shanahan, L., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2009). Childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders as predictors of young adult disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(7), 764–772. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.85
Coster, L. D., Leentjens, A. F., Lodder, J., & Verhey, F. R. (2005). The sensitivity of somatic symptoms in post-stroke depression: A discriminant analytic approach. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(4), 358–362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.1290.
Cummings, C. M., Caporino, N. E., & Kendall, P. C. (2014). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: 20 years after. Psychological Bulletin, 140(3), 816–845. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037.a0034733.
Cytryn, L., & McKnew, D. H. (1972). Proposed classification of childhood depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 129(2), 149–155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.129.2.149.
Deault, L. C. (2010). A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41, 168–192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10578-009-0159-4.
Eley, T. C., Lichtenstein, P., & Stevenson, J. (1999). Sex differences in the etiology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior: Results from two twin studies. Child Development, 70(1), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00012
Emslie, G., Heiligenstein, J., Wagner, K., Hoog, S., Ernest, D., Brown, E., … Jacobson, J. (2002). Fluoxetine for acute treatment of depression in children and adolescents: A placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1205–1215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200210000-00010.
Essau, C. A. (2003). Comorbidity of anxiety disorders in adolescents. Depression and Anxiety, 18, 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.10107.
Eysenck, H. J., & Rachman, S. (1967). The causes and cures of neurosis: An introduction to modern behaviour therapy based on learning theory and the principles of conditioning. San Diego: Robert R. Knapp.
Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., & Horwood, L. J. (1996). Origins of comorbidity between conduct and affective disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(4), 451–460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199604000-00011.
Fichter, M. M., Quadflieg, N., Fischer, U. C., & Kohlboeck, G. (2010). Twenty-five-year course and outcome in anxiety and depression in the upper Bavarian longitudinal community study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 122(1), 75–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01512.x.
Finch, S. M. (1960). Fundamentals of child psychiatry. Oxford, England: W. W. Norton & Company Inc..
Franić, S., Middeldorp, C. M., Dolan, C. V., Ligthart, L., & Boomsma, D. I. (2010). Childhood and adolescent anxiety and depression: Beyond heritability. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(8), 820–829. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.013.
Friedman, R. C., Clarkin, J. F., Corn, R., Aronoff, M. S., Hurt, S. W., & Murphy, M. C. (1982). DSM-III and affective pathology in hospitalized adolescents. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 170(9), 511–521.
Frigerio, A., Pesenti, S., Molteni, M., Snider, J., & Battaglia, M. (2001). Depressive symptoms as measured by the CDI in a population of northern Italian children. European Psychiatry, 16(1), 33–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00533-2.
Garland, A. F., Brookman-Frazee, L., Hurlburt, M. S., Accurso, E. C., Zoffness, R. J., Haine-Schlagel, R., & Ganger, W. (2010). Mental health care for children with disruptive behavior problems: A view inside therapist’s offices. Psychiatric Services, 61(8), 788–795. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ps.2010.61.8.788.
Geller, B., Reising, H., Leonard, M., Riddle, M., & Walsh, B. (1999). Controlled studies of tricyclic antidepressant treatment for children and adolescents with depression failed to produce a replicable pattern of efficacy. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 513–516.
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/10567-010-0080-1.
Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, J. A. (1991). Neural systems of motivation, emotion, and affect. In J. Madden (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect (pp. 273–306). New York: Raven Press.
Greene, R. W., Biederman, J., Zerwas, S., Monuteaux, M. C., Goring, J. C., & Faraone, S. V. (2002). Psychiatric comorbidity, family dysfunction, and social impairment in referred youth with oppositional defiant disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(7), 1214–1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1214.
Greenberg, P. E., Fournier, A. A., Sisitsky, T., Pike, C. T., & Kessler, R. C. (2015). The economic burden of adults with major depressive disorder in the United States (2005 and 2010). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76(2), 155–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09298.
Hammar, Å., & Årdal, G. (2009). Cognitive functioning in major depression - a summary. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.026.2009.
Hammen, C. L., Rudolph, K. D., & Abaied, J. (2014). Child and adolescent depression. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (3rd ed.pp. 225–265). New York: The Guilford Press.
Hammen, C., Shih, J. H., & Brennan, P. A. (2004). Intergenerational transmission of depression: Test of an interpersonal stress model in a community sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 511–522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.511.
Harrington, R. (1993). Similarities and dissimilarities between child and adult disorders: The case of depression. In C. G. Costello (Ed.), Basic issues in psychopathology (pp. 103–124). New York, NY: Guillford Press.
Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Mletzko, T., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2008). The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(6), 693–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008.
Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., Ruggiero, K. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2003). Contemporary behavioral activation treatments for depression: Procedures, principles, and progress. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(5), 699–717. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00070-9.
Hughes, C. W., Emslie, G. J., Crismon, M. L., Wagner, K. D., Birmaher, B., Geller, B., … Toprac, M. G. (1999). The texas children's medication algorithm project: Report of the texas consensus conference panel on medication treatment of childhood major depressive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(11), 1442–1454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199911000-00020.
Hughes, C., Preskorn, S. H., Weller, E., Weller, R., Hassanein, R., & Tucker, S. (1990). The effect of concomitant disorders in childhood depression on predicting treatment response. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 26(2), 235–238.
Humphreys, K. L., Katz, S. J., Lee, S. S., Hammen, C., Brennan, P. A., & Najman, J. M. (2013). The association of ADHD and depression: Mediation by peer problems and parent-child difficulties in two complementary samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(3), 854–867.
Jensen, P. S., Hinshaw, S. P., Kraemer, H. C., Lenora, N., Newcorn, J. H., Abikoff, H. B., … Vitiello, B. (2001). ADHD comorbidity findings from the MTA study: Comparing comorbid subgroups. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(2), 147–158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200102000-00009.
Kaminski, K. M., & Garber, J. (2002). Depressive spectrum disorders in high-risk adolescents: Episode duration and predictors of time to recovery. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(4), 410–418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200204000-00013.
Kendall, P. C., & Hedtke, K. A. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxious children: Therapist manual (3rd ed.). Ardmore, PA: Workbook Publishing Inc..
Kendler, K. S., Gardner, C. O., Neale, M. C., & Prescott, C. A. (2001). Genetic risk factors for major depression in men and women: Similar or different heritabilities and same or partly distinct genes? Psychological Medicine, 31(4), 605–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701003907.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National comorbidity survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602.
Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., & Shankman, S. A. (2009). Personality and mood disorders. In I. H. Gotlib & C. L. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of depression (2nd ed.pp. 93–112). New York: Guilford.
Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M. A., Paulauskas, S. L., & Finkelstein, R. (1984). Depressive disorders in childhood: I. A longitudinal prospective study of characteristics and recovery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41(3), 229–237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790140019002.
Kovacs, M., Obrosky, D. S., Gatsonis, C., & Richards, C. (1997). First-episode major depressive and dysthymic disorder in childhood: Clinical and sociodemographic factors in recovery. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6), 777–784. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199706000-00014.
Kovacs, M., Paulauskas, S., Gatsonis, C., & Richards, C. (1988). Depressive disorders in childhood: III. A longitudinal study of comorbidity with and risk for conduct disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 15(3), 205–217.
Kuny, A. V., Althoff, R. R., Copeland, W., Bartels, M., Van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Baer, J., & Hudziak, J. J. (2013). Separating the domains of oppositional behavior: Comparing latent models of the Conners’ oppositional subscale. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(2), 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.10.005
Lakdawalla, Z., Hankin, B. L., & Mermelstein, R. (2007). Cognitive theories of depression in children and adolescents: A conceptual and quantitative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10(1), 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10567-006-0013-1.
Lau, J. F., & Eley, T. C. (2013). The genetics of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema & L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 259–278). New York: Routledge.
Leibenluft, E. (2011). Severe mood dysregulation, irritability, and the diagnostic boundaries of bipolar disorder in youths. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(2), 129–142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10050766.
Leibenluft, E., & Stoddard, J. (2013). The developmental psychopathology of irritability. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1473–1487. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000722
Lejuez, C., Hopko, D., Acierno, R., Daughters, S., & Pagoto, S. (2011). Ten year revision of the brief behavioral activation treatment for depression: Revised treatment manual. Behavior Modification, 35(2), 111–161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0145445510390929.
Lesse, S. (1983). The masked depression syndrome: Results of a seventeen-year clinical study. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 37(4), 456–475.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III—R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.133.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1995). Adolescent psychopathology: III. The clinical consequences of comorbidity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 510–519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199504000-00018.
Loeber, R., Russo, M. F., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Lahey, B. B. (1994). Internalizing problems and their relation to the development of disruptive behaviors in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 44(4), 615–637. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0404_11.
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Kovacs, M., & George, C. J. (2009). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation in depressed children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(9), 1272–1283. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.03.016.
Luby, J. L., Heffelfinger, A. K., Mrakotsky, C., Brown, K. M., Hessler, M. J., Wallis, J. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (2003). The clinical picture of depression in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(3), 340–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200303000-00015.
Luby, J. L. (2010). Preschool depression and the importance of identification of depression early in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(2), 91–95.
March, J., Silva, S., & Vitiello (The TADS Team; 2006). The treatment for adolescents with depression study (TADS): Methods and message at 12 weeks. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(12), 1393–1403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000237709.35637.c0
Margulies, D. M., Weintraub, S., Basile, J., Grover, P. J., & Carlson, G. A. (2012). Will disruptive mood dysregulation disorder reduce false diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children? Bipolar Disorders, 14(5), 488–496. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2012.01029.x.
Mash, E. J., & Barkley, R. A. (2003). Child psychopathology (2nd ed.). New York: The Guildford Press.
Mayes, R., & Horwitz, A. V. (2005). DSM-III and the revolution in the classification of mental illness. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 41(3), 249–267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.20103.
McCullough Jr., J. P., Klein, D. N., Borian, F. E., Howland, R. H., Riso, L. P., Keller, M. B., & Banks, P. L. (2003). Group comparisons of DSM-IV subtypes of chronic depression: Validity of the distinctions, part 2. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4), 614–622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.614.
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. J. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(8), 986–1003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.03.001.
Measelle, J. R., John, O. P., Ablow, J. C., Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (2005). Can children provide coherent, stable, and valid self-reports on the big five dimensions? A longitudinal study from ages 5 to 7. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(1), 90–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.90.
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., … Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.
Middeldorp, C. M., Cath, D. C., van den Berg, M., Beem, A. L., Van Dyck, R., & Boomsma, D. I. (2006). The association of personality with anxious and depressive psychopathology. In T. Canli (Ed.), Biological basis of personality and individual differences (pp. 251–272). New York: The Guilford Press.
Mitchell, J., McCauley, E., Burke, P. M., & Moss, S. J. (1988). Phenomenology of depression in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(1), 12–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-198801000-00004.
Moreno, C., Laje, G., Blanco, C., Jiang, H., Schmidt, A. B., & Olfson, M. (2007). National trends in the outpatient diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in youth. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(9), 1032–1039. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.9.1032.
Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(6), 577–584. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577.
Nock, M. K., Green, J. G., Hwang, I., McLaughlin, K. A., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Prevalence, correlates, and treatment of lifetime suicidal behavior among adolescents: Results from the National comorbidity survey replication Adolescent supplement. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(3), 300–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/2013.jamapsychiatry.55.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115(3), 424–443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.424.
Olino, T. M., Klein, D. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (2010). Latent trajectory classes of depressive and anxiety disorders from adolescence to adulthood: Descriptions of classes and associations with risk factors. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 51, 224–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.07.002.
Ollendick, T. H., King, N. J., & Chorpita, B. F. (2006). Empirically supported treatments for children and adolescents. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Child and adolescent therapy: Cognitive-behavioral procedures (pp. 492–520). New York: The Guilford Press.
O'Neil, K. A., Conner, B. T., & Kendall, P. C. (2011). Internalizing disorders and substance use disorders in youth: Comorbidity, risk, temporal order, and implications for intervention. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(1), 104–112. http://dx.doi.org/104-112. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.002.
Oquendo, M. A., Turret, J., Grunebaum, M. F., Burke, A. K., Poh, E., Stevenson, E., … Galfalvy, H. (2013). Sex differences in clinical predictors of depression: A prospective study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150(3), 1179–1183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.010.
Ostrander, R., & Herman, K. C. (2006). Potential cognitive, parenting, and developmental mediators of the relationship between ADHD and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 89–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.1.89.
Pagliaccio, D., Luby, J. L., Luking, K. R., Belden, A. C., & Barch, D. M. (2014). Brain–behavior relationships in the experience and regulation of negative emotion in healthy children: Implications for risk for childhood depression. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4pt2), 1289–1303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414001035.
Palagini, L., & Rosenlicht, N. (2011). Sleep, dreaming, and mental health: A review of historical and neurobiological perspectives. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 15(3), 179–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2010.07.003.
Perou, R., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Pastor, P., Ghandour, R. M., Gfroerer, J. C., … Huang, L. N. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]; 2013). Mental health surveillance among children-United States, 2005–2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summary, 62(2), 1–35. Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su6202a1.htm
Pogge, D. L., Wayland-Smith, D., Zaccario, M., Borgaro, S., Stokes, J., & Harvey, P. D. (2001). Diagnosis of manic episodes in adolescent inpatients: Structured diagnostic procedures compared to clinical chart diagnoses. Psychiatry Research, 101(1), 47–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(00)00248-1.
Post, R. M. (1992). Transduction of psychosocial stress into the neurobiology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(8), 999–1010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.149.8.999.
Post, R. M. (2007). Kindling and sensitization as models for affective episode recurrence, cyclicity, and tolerance phenomena. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 31(6), 858–873. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.003.
Puig-Antich, J., Blau, S., Marx, N., Greenhill, L. L., & Chambers, W. (1978). Prepubertal major depressive disorder: A pilot study. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17(4), 695–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-7138(09)61021-9.
Reppermund, S., Ising, M., Lucae, S., & Zihl, J. (2009). Cognitive impairment in unipolar depression is persistent and non-specific: Further evidence for the final common pathway disorder hypothesis. Psychological Medicine, 39(04), 603–614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S003329170800411X.
Rie, H. E. (1966). Depression in childhood: A survey of some pertinent contributions. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 5(4), 653–685.
Rock, P. L., Roiser, J. P., Riedel, W. J., & Blackwell, A. D. (2014). Cognitive impairment in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 44(10), 2029–2040. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713002535.
Rohde, P., Clarke, G. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., & Kaufman, N. K. (2001). Impact of comorbidity on a cognitive-behavioral group treatment for adolescent depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(7), 795–802. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200107000-00014.
Rudolph, K. D., Flynn, M., & Abaied, J. L. (2008). A developmental perspective on interpersonal theories of youth depression. In J. R. Z. Abela & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 79–102). New York: The Guilford Press.
Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70(3), 660–677.
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., & Burge, D. (1994). Interpersonal functioning and depressive symptoms in childhood: Addressing the issues of specificity and comorbidity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22(3), 355–371.
Sánchez-Álvarez, N., Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2016). The relation between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being: A meta-analytic investigation. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(3), 276–285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1058968.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Seligman, L., & Ollendick, T. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: An integrative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1(2), 125–144.
Snyder, H. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028727.
Spitz, R. A. (1945). Hospitalism: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1(1), 53–74.
Spitz, R. A., & Wolf, K. M. (1946). Anaclitic depression; an inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood, II. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 2, 313–342.
Stark, K., Sander, J., Hauser, M., Simpson, J., Schnoebelen, S., Glenn, R., & Molnar, J. (2006). Depressive disorders during childhood and adolescence. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Treatment of childhood disorders (3rd ed.pp. 336–407). New York: The Guilford Press.
Stringaris, A., & Goodman, R. (2009). Longitudinal outcome of youth oppositionality: Irritable, headstrong, and hurtful behaviors have distinctive predictions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(4), 404–412. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181984f30
Stringaris, A., Cohen, P., Pine, D. S., & Leibenluft, E. (2009). Adult outcomes of youth irritability: A 20-year prospective community-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(9), 1048–1054. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121849
Stringaris, A., Maughan, B., Copeland, W. S., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2013). Irritable mood as a symptom of depression in youth: Prevalence, developmental, and clinical correlates in the great Smoky Mountains study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(8), 831–840. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.017.
Tang, T., Jou, S., Ko, C., Huang, S. Y., & Yen, C. (2009). Randomized study of school-based intensive interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents with suicidal risk and parasuicide behaviors. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 63, 463–470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.01991.x.
The TADS Team. (2009). The treatment for adolescents with depression study (TADS): Outcomes over 1 year of naturalistic follow-up. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(10), 1141–1149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08111620.
van Beveren, M. L., McIntosh, K., Vandevivere, E., Wante, L., Vandeweghe, L., van Durme, K., … Braet, C. (2016). Associations between temperament, emotion regulation, and depression in youth: The role of positive temperament. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(6), 1954–1968.
van der Veek, S. M., Nobel, R. A., & Derkx, H. H. F. (2012). The relationship between emotion awareness and somatic complaints in children and adolescents: Investigating the mediating role of anxiety and depression. Psychology and Health, 27(11), 1359–1374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.685738
van der Zweerde, T., Lancee, J., Slottje, P., Bosmans, J., Van Someren, E., Reynolds, C., … van Straten, A. (2016). Cost-effectiveness of i-sleep, a guided online CBT intervention, for patients with insomnia in general practice: Protocol of a pragmatic randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 16, 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0783-z.
van Lang, N. D., Ferdinand, R. F., & Verhulst, F. C. (2007). Predictors of future depression in early and late adolescence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 97(1), 137–144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.06.007.
Walker, M. P., & van Der Helm, E. (2009). Overnight therapy? The role of sleep in emotional brain processing. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 731–748. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016570.
Waszczuk, M. A., Zavos, H. M., Gregory, A. M., & Eley, T. C. (2014). The phenotypic and genetic structure of depression and anxiety disorder symptoms in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(8), 905–916. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.655.
Weisz, J., Kuppens, S., Eckshtain, D., Ugueto, A., Hawley, K., & Jensen-Doss, A. (2013). Performance of evidence-based youth psychotherapies compared with usual clinical care: A multilevel meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(7), 750–761. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1176.
Weisz, J., Thurber, C., Sweeney, L., Proffitt, V., & LeGagnoux, G. (1997). Brief treatment of mild-to-moderate child depression using primary and secondary control enhancement training (PASCET). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(4), 703–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.65.4.703.
Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Verdeli, H., Pilowsky, D. J., … Bruder, G. (2005). Families at high and low risk for depression: A 3-generation study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(1), 29–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.1.29.
Wickramaratne, P. J., Warner, V., & Weissman, M. M. (2000). Selecting early onset MDD probands for genetic studies: Results from a longitudinal high-risk study. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96(1), 93–101.
Wilcox, H. C., & Anthony, J. C. (2004). Child and adolescent clinical features as forerunners of adult-onset major depressive disorder: Retrospective evidence from an epidemiological sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82(1), 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2003.10.007.
Wittchen, H. U., Nelson, C. B., & Lachner, G. (1998). Prevalence of mental disorders and psychosocial impairments in adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine, 28(1), 109–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291797005928.
Wolff, J. C., & Ollendick, T. H. (2006). The comorbidity of conduct problems and depression in childhood and adolescence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9(3), 201–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10567-006-0011-3.
Woodward, L. J., & Ferguson, D. M. (2001). Life course outcomes of young people with anxiety disorders in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1086–1093. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200109000-00018.
Zoccolillo, M., & Rogers, K. (1991). Characteristics and outcome of hospitalized adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(6), 973–981. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199111000-00016.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Powell, A.K., Ocean, S.E., Stanick, C.F. (2017). Depressive Disorders. In: Goldstein, S., DeVries, M. (eds) Handbook of DSM-5 Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57196-6_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57196-6_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-57194-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-57196-6
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)