Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Household Water Insecurity in Different Settlement Categories of Ngamiland, Botswana

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Water, Energy, Food and People Across the Global South

Part of the book series: International Political Economy Series ((IPES))

  • 655 Accesses

Abstract

The attainment of water security is a major challenge confronting Botswana, a semi-arid country. This chapter analyzes household water security challenges in different settlement categories (i.e. primary centers, tertiary centers and ungazetted villages) of Ngamiland, Botswana. Informed by the concepts of security, water security and human security, the study used a survey of 554 households and qualitative data, collected through key informant interviews, participant observation, focus group discussions and informal interviews. The results of the study established that households across all settlement categories of Ngamiland encounter water insecurity in terms of availability and quality. Gazetted settlements households go for prolonged periods without water supply services. Households in ungazetted settlements use water from unprotected sources. The chapter concludes that the majority of households in different settlement categories are water insecure and this has negative effects on human security. Botswana has to put in place a water policy which emphasises the attainment water security and human security. Strategies and programmes aimed at enhancing household water security in both gazetted and ungazetted settlements have to be underpinned by scientific research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    USD1 = BWP 8.6, August 2013 when data was collected; USD1 = BWP 10.4, May 2017.

  2. 2.

    Personal communication with the DWA Water Supplies Manager.

  3. 3.

    This was picked up from informal interviews and observations by the researcher.

References

  • Adeniji-Oloukoi, G., U. Bob, and V. Moodley. 2013. Households’ Coping Strategies for Climate Variability Related Water Shortages in Oke-Ogun Region, Nigeria. Environmental Development 5: 23–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainuson, K.G. 2010. Urban Water Politics and Water Security in Disadvantaged Urban Communities in Ghana. African Studies Quarterly 11 (4): 59–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alkire, S. 2003. A Conceptual Framework of Human Security. Oxford: Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ariyabandu, R.D.S. 2001. Household Water Security Using Rainwater Harvesting. Domestic Roofwater Harvesting Workshop. New Delhi: IIT Delhi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, A.B. 1988. Social Exclusion Poverty and Unemployment. In Exclusion, Employment and Opportunity, ed. A.B. Atkinson and J. Hill, 1–20. London: Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion (CASE), London School of Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, D.A. 1997. The Concept of security. Review of International Studies 23: 5–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beall, J., and N. Kanji. 1999. Households, Livelihoods and Urban Poverty, Urban Governance, Partnership and Poverty Series. Birmingham: International Development Department, School of Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigas, H. 2012. The Global Water Crisis: Addressing an Urgent Security Issue. Hamilton: UNU-INWEH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botswana Bureau of Standards. 2009. Drinking Water Specification, BOS: 32:2009. Gaborone: Botswana Bureau of Standards.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowring, F. 2000. Social Exclusion: Limitations of the Debate. Critical Social Policy 20: 307–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budds, J., and G. McGranahan. 2003. Are the Debates on Water Privatization Missing the Point? Experiences from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Environment and Urbanization 15 (2): 87–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buzan, B. 1983. People, States and Fear: The National Security Problem in International Relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1991. New Patterns of Global Security in the Twenty-First Century. International Affairs 67 (3): 431–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buzan, B., O. Waever, and J. de Wilde. 1998. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Central Statistical Office. 2011. National Population and Housing Census, 2011. Gaborone: Ministry of Finance and Development Planning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, C., and K. Bakker. 2012. Water Security: Debating an Emerging Paradigm. Global Environmental Change 22: 94–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, H., N. Ajami, H. Mai-Lan, V. Srinivasan, J. Morrison, K. Donnelly, and J. Christian-Smith. 2013. Global Water Governance in the 21st Century. Oakland: Pacific Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Environmental Affairs. 2008. Okavango Delta Management Plan. Gaborone: Department of Environmental Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleick, P.H. 1996. Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs. Water International 21: 83–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2009. Water Conflict Chronology. In The World’s Water the Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, 2008–2009, ed. P.H. Gleick and M.J. Cohen, 151–193. Washington, DC: Pacific Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Government of Botswana. 1998. Botswana National Settlement Policy. Gaborone: Government Printer.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2009. National Development Plan. Vol. 10. Gaborone: Government Printer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grey, D. 2012. Water Security, Risk and Society Findings, Gaps and Opportunities for Social and Economic Research, Strategic Report on Research Findings, Gaps and Opportunities. Oxford: Economic and Social Research Council.

    Google Scholar 

  • GWP. 2000a. Integrated Water Resource Management, Technical Advisory Committee Background Paper. Stockholm: Global Water Partnership.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2000b. Towards Water Security: A Framework for Action. Stockholm: Global Water Partnership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanjra, M.A., and M.E. Qureshi. 2010. Global Water Crisis and Future Food Security in an Era of Climate Change. Food Policy 35 (5): 365–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HOORC (Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre). 2007. Water in the Okavango Delta. Fact Sheet, 4. Maun: HOORC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J.A.A., T.G. Vardianian, and C. Hakopian. 2009. Threats to Global Water Security: Population Growth, Terrorism, Climate Change or Communication. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, B. 1996. A Theory of Poverty and Social Exclusion. Cambridge: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jury, W.A., and H.J. Vaux. 2007. The Emerging Global Water Crisis: Managing Scarcity and Conflict Between Water Users. Advances in Agronomy 95: 1–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kgomotso, P.K., and L.A. Swatuk. 2006. Access to Water and Related Resources in Ngamiland, Botswana: Toward a more Critical Perspective and Sustainable Approach. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 31: 659–668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleiner, S.L. 1999. Water: An Essential but Overlooked Nutrient. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 99 (2): 200–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kujinga, K., C. Vanderpost, G. Mmopelwa, and P. Wolski. 2014. An Analysis of Factors Contributing to Household Water Security Problems and Threats in Different Settlement Categories of Ngamiland, Botswana. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 67–69: 187–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamprey, R.H., and R.S. Reid. 2004. Expansion of Human Settlement in Kenya’s Maasai Mara: What Future for Pastoralism and Wildlife? Journal of Biogeography 31 (6): 997–1032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manda, M.A.Z. 2009. Water and Sanitation in Urban Malawi: Can the Millennium Development Goals be Met? A Study of Informal Settlements in Three Cities. Human Settlements Working Paper Series. London: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).

    Google Scholar 

  • Manyanhaire, I.O., and T. Kamuzungu. 2009. Access to Safe Drinking Water by Rural Communities in Zimbabwe: A Case of Mundenda Village in Mutasa District of Manicaland Province. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11 (1): 113–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manzungu, E., and R. Chioreso. 2012. Internalising a Crisis: Household Level Response to Water Scarcity in the City of Harare, Zimbabwe. Journal of Social Development in Africa 27 (1): 111–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, P.R. 2009. Zimbabwe Experiences the Worst Epidemic of Cholera in Africa. Journal on Infection in Developing Countries 3 (2): 148–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazvimavi, D., and G. Mmopelwa. 2006. Access to Water in Gazetted and Ungazetted Rural Settlements in Ngamiland, Botswana. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 31: 713–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mels, A., D. Castellano, O. Braadbaart, S. Veenstra, I. Dijkstra, B. Meulman, et al. 2010. Sanitation Services for the Informal Settlements of Cape Town, South Africa. Desalination 251: 330–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelsohn, J.M., L. Ramberg, and M. Murray-Hudson. 2010. Okavango Delta: Floods of Life. Windhoek: RAISON.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, M. 2008. Free Basic Water – A Sustainable Instrument for a Sustainable Future in South Africa. Environment and Urbanization 20 (1): 67–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paris, R. 2001. Human Security: Paradigm Shift or Hot Air? International Security 26 (2): 87–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Postel, S., and B. Ritchter. 2003. Rivers for Life: Managing Rivers for People and for Nature. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Presidential Task Force Group. 1997. Vision 2016: Towards Prosperity for All. Gaborone: Government of Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Provost, C. 2014. Southern African Leaders Fail to Prioritise Water and Sanitation. The Guardian, March 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prud’homme, A. 2011. The Ripple Effect. The Fate of Freshwater in the 21st Century. New York: Scribner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Republic of Botswana. 2003. Ngamiland District Development Plan 6, 2003–2009. Gaborone: Government of Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosegrant, M.W., and S.A. Cline. 2003. Global Food Security: Challenges and Policies. Science 302 (5652): 1917–1919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S. 2012. Analysis of Water Provision to Remote Aboriginal Communities in Western Australia Through a Social Justice Lens. Perth: Bachelor of Engineering University of Western Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soroos, M.S. 1994. Global Change, Environmental Security and the Prisoner’s Dilemma. Journal of Peace Research 31 (3): 317–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swatuk, L.A. 2015. Can IWRM Float on a Sea of Underdevelopment? Reflections on 20+ Years of ‘Reform’ in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Water and Development: An African Perspective, ed. R. Munck, N. Asingwire, H. Fagan, and C. Kabonesa, 77–99. London: Zed Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swatuk, L.A., and P.K. Kgomotso. 2007. The Challenges of Supplying Water to Small, Scattered Communities in the Lower Okavango Basin (LOB), Botswana: An Evaluation of Government Policy and Performance. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32: 1264–1274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tortajada, C. 2010. Water Governance: Some Critical Issues. Water Resources Development 26 (2): 297–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UN. 1976. World Housing Survey. New York: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013a. The Millennium Development Goals Report 2013. New York: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013b. The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2013. Washington, DC: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2015. The Millennium Development Goals Report. New York: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNDP. 1994. Human Development Report: New Dimensions of Human Security. New York: United Nations Development Programme.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2006. Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis. New York: United Nations Development Programme.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. 2003. World Water Projects, Water for the People, Water for life, World Water Assessment Programme Washington, DC: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanwey, L.K. 2003. Land Ownership as a Determinant of Temporary Migration in Nang Rong, Thailand. European Journal of Population/Revue européenne de Démographie 19 (2): 121–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voice, The. 2011. Maun Goes for Days Without Water. The Voice, March 18.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013. Maun Water Woes Worsen. The Voice, April, 26.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. 1997. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Geneva: World Health Organisation.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2011. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Geneva: World Health Organisation.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO/UNICEF. 2000a. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. Geneva: World Health Organisation and United Nations Children’s Fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2000b. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. Geneva/New York: WHO/UNICEF.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013. Progressing Sanitation and Drinking Water. Geneva: WHO and UNICEF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolski, P., and M. Murray-Hudson. 2008. ‘Alternative Futures’ of the Okavango Delta Simulated by a Suite of Global Climate and Hydro-Ecological Models. Water SA 34 (5): 605–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. 2010. Africa’s Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Writer, Staff. 2011. Minister Reveals Plan to Address Water Problem in Maun. Mmegi, July 22. Available at: www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=441&dir=2011/July/Friday22/. Accessed 23 May 2017.

Download references

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of a study being carried out at the Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, for a PhD degree in Natural Resources Management. Carnegie-RISE provided funding for the work. Special thanks to WUC, DWA and NWDC officials, the study communities and all those who contributed in various ways.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. WaterNet, Harare, Zimbabwe

    Krasposy Kujinga

  2. Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

    Cornelis Vanderpost

  3. Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

    Gagoitseope Mmopelwa

  4. Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana

    Wellington R. L. Masamba

Authors
  1. Krasposy Kujinga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cornelis Vanderpost
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gagoitseope Mmopelwa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Wellington R. L. Masamba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environment, Enterprise and Development, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

    Larry A. Swatuk

  2. Coady International Institute, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada

    Corrine Cash

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kujinga, K., Vanderpost, C., Mmopelwa, G., Masamba, W.R.L. (2018). Household Water Insecurity in Different Settlement Categories of Ngamiland, Botswana. In: Swatuk, L., Cash, C. (eds) Water, Energy, Food and People Across the Global South. International Political Economy Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64024-2_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation