Abstract
The be + after + V-ing construction is probably the signature construction of Irish English. It has often been used in the portrayal of Irish characters in literature, theatre and cinema. This structure has been widely researched from many different perspectives. Its main function has been described as reporting the conclusion of an action by way of reference to a state initiated by the conclusion of this action. It is also associated with the delivery of ‘hot news.’ Though this Irish (Gaelic)-influenced structure has sometimes been dismissed as stage Irish and outmoded, it is still widely used in contemporary spoken interactions. This paper analyses its use in over 100 hours of naturally occurring casual conversations from around Ireland from the Limerick Corpus of Irish English (LCIE), and these are then compared with a smaller corpus of written Irish English which includes literary sources.
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Notes
- 1.
Beyond Ireland, this construction is also attested in Hebridean English, where it is a direct transfer from Scottish Gaelic; and in Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, New Zealand and Australia, as a result of Irish immigration (see Kevin McCafferty, ‘“I Think that I will be after Making Love to One of Them”: A Revised Account of Irish English Be after V-ing and its Irish Source’, in ‘Ye whom the charms of grammar please’: Studies in English Language History in Honour of Leiv Egil Breivik, eds Kari E. Haugland, Kevin McCafferty and Kristian A. Rusten [Oxford: Peter Lang, 2014], 201–2).
- 2.
Patrick L. Henry, An Anglo-Irish Dialect of North Roscommon: Phonology, Accidence, Syntax (Dublin: University College, 1957); Jeffrey Kallen, ‘Tense and Aspect Categories in Irish English,’ English World Wide 10 (1989): 1–39; ‘The Hiberno-English Perfect: Grammaticalisation Revisited’, Irish University Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 120–36; ‘Sociolinguistic Variation and Methodology: After as a Dublin Variable’, in English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives, ed. Jeremy Cheshire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 61–74; John Harris, ‘Syntactic Variation and Dialect Divergence’, Journal of Linguistics 20, no. 2 (September 1984): 303–27; Markku Filppula, The Grammar of Irish English. Language in Hibernian Style (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), 99–107; Kevin McCafferty, ‘“I Think that I will be”’; Patricia Ronan, ‘The After-Perfect in Irish English’, in Dialects across Borders. Selected Papers from the 11th International Conference on Methods in Dialectology (Methods XI), Joensuu, August 2002, eds Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, Marjatta Palander and Esa Penttilä (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2005), 253–70; and Lukas Pietsch, ‘The Irish English “After Perfect” in Context: Borrowing and Syntactic Productivity’, Arbeiten zur Mehrsprachigkeit. Folge B, 82 (2007): 1–32.
- 3.
Suzanne Romaine, Bilingualism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989).
- 4.
James Milroy, Regional Accents of English: Belfast (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1981); and Jeffrey Kallen, ‘Sociolinguistic Variation and Methodology’.
- 5.
Jeffrey Kallen, ‘Tense and Aspect Categories’; and ‘Sociolinguistic Variation and Methodology’; and Raymond Hickey, ‘Models for Describing Aspect in Irish English’, in The Celtic Englishes II, ed. Hildegard Tristram (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 2000), 97–116; and Dublin English: Evolution and Change (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2005), 120–21.
- 6.
Anne O’Keeffe and Carolina P. Amador-Moreno, ‘The Pragmatics of the be + after + V-ing Construction in Irish English’, Intercultural Pragmatic 6, no. 4 (December 2009): 517–34.
- 7.
John Harris, ‘Syntactic Variation’, 308; and James McCawley, ‘Tense and Time Reference in English’, in Grammar and Meaning: Papers on Syntactic and Semantic Topics, ed. James McCawley (London: Academic Press, 1976), 257–72.
- 8.
David Greene (‘Perfects and Perfectives in Modern Irish’, Ériu 30 [1979], 122–41) refers to the after construction as PI and to the IrE perfective with past participle + object (e.g. I have the book read) as the PII.
- 9.
Patrick L. Henry, An Anglo-Irish Dialect, 177.
- 10.
Raymond Hickey, ‘Models for Describing Aspect’, 98 ff.
- 11.
Markku Filppula, The Grammar of Irish English, 99.
- 12.
Jiro Taniguchi, A Grammatical Analysis of Artistic Representation of Irish English (Tokyo: Shinozaki Shorin, 1972); Alan Joseph Bliss, Spoken English in Ireland 1600–1740 (Dublin: Dolmen Press, 1979); J. P. Sullivan, ‘The Genesis of Hiberno-English: A Socio-Historical Account’, Ph.D thesis (New York: Yeshiva University, 1979’; Terence P. Dolan, ‘Sean O’Casey’s Use of Hiberno-English‘, in Irland: Gesellschaft und Kultur, ed. D. Siegmund-Schultze (Halle-Wintenberg: Martin-Luther Universität, 1985), 108–15; Kevin McCafferty, ‘William Carleton between Irish and English: Using Literary Dialect to Study Language Contact and Change’, Language and Literature 14, no. 4 (2005): 339–62; and Carolina P. Amador-Moreno, The Use of Hiberno-English in Patrick MacGill’s Early Novels: Bilingualism and Language Shift from Irish to English in County Donegal (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen, 2006); and An Introduction to Irish English (London: Equinox, 2010).
- 13.
See Mary Hayden, and Marcus Hartog, ‘The Irish Dialect of English: Its Origins and Vocabulary’, Fortnightly Review, New series 85 (1909): 775–85 and 933–47; A. G. van Hamel, ‘On Anglo-Irish Syntax’, Englische Studien 45 (1912): 272–92; and K. E. Younge, ‘Irish Idioms in English Speech’, The Gaelic Churchman 4–6 (1922–1927): 46–428.
- 14.
Markku Filppula, The Grammar of Irish English, 99. Depending on whether the copula is in the present or in the past tense (cf. Filppula’s examples: […] a house you’re after passing, and […] he was only after getting job [sic] …).
- 15.
Patrick L. Henry, An Anglo-Irish Dialect, 177.
- 16.
Francis Sadlier Stoney, Don’t Pat: A Manual of Irishisms (Dublin: McGee William, 1885), 59–60.
- 17.
The eighteenth-century distinction between polite and vulgar, as is well known, disparaged all popular, dialectal forms of English. As this comment illustrates, in some cases this attitude was perpetuated well into the nineteenth century (see Dick Leith, A Social History of English [London: Routledge, 1983] and Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language [London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981]). Amador-Moreno and McCafferty (‘[B]ut Sure It’s Only a Penny After All’: Irish English Discourse Marker Sure’, in Transatlantic Perspectives in Late Modern English, ed. Marina Dossena [Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2015], 179–98) discuss the issue of enregisterment (Asif Agha, ‘The Social Life of Cultural Value’, Language and Communication 23 (2003): 231–73) in the context of Irish literature. For a discussion of the linguistic portrayal of Irish characters from 1600 to 1740 see Alan Joseph Bliss, Spoken English in Ireland.
- 18.
Hiberno-English was the term used in earlier references to the variety of English spoken in Ireland. It combines the Latin term used by the Romans to refer to the island of Ireland, Hibernia, and the noun English. Nowadays, for the sake of clarity, the term Irish English is preferred.
- 19.
J. P. Sullivan, ‘The Genesis of Hiberno-English’, 81.
- 20.
Mary Hayden and Marcus Hartog, The Irish Dialect of English, 933.
- 21.
Patrick Joyce, English As We Speak It in Ireland (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 1910), 85.
- 22.
A. G. van Hamel, ‘On Anglo-Irish Syntax’.
- 23.
See Terence Odlin, Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Suzanne Romaine, Bilingualism, 69–70.
- 24.
For further details see John Harris, ‘Syntactic Variation’, 319; Markku Filppula, The Grammar of Irish English, 101–2; Raymond Hickey, Irish English: History and Present-Day Forms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); and Kevin McCafferty, ‘“I Think that I will be”’.
- 25.
Whereas the form i-ndiaidh is favoured in the Irish of Ulster, in southern dialects the form tar éis is preferred. (see Loreto Todd, The Language of Irish Literature [Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1989], 43).
- 26.
E.g. Jeffrey Kallen, ‘The Hiberno-English Perfect’; Markku Filppula, The Grammar of Irish English, 102–5; and Kevin McCafferty, ‘“I Think that I will be”’; ‘“I’ll Bee After Telling Dee de Raison …” Be after V-ing as a Future Gram in Irish English, 1601–1750’, in The Celtic Englishes II, ed. Hildegard Tristram (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 2000), 298–317; ‘Innovation in Language Contact: Be after V-ing as a Future Gram in Irish English, 1670 to the Present’, Diachronica 21, no. 1 (2004): 113–60; ‘Language Contact in Early Modern Ireland: The Case of be after V-ing as a Future Gram’, English Core Linguistics: Essays in Honour of D. J. Allerton, ed. Cornelia Tschichold (Bern: Peter Lang, 2003), 323–42; and ‘William Carleton between Irish and English: Using Literary Dialect’.
- 27.
Raymond Hickey, ‘Models for Describing’, 101; and Alan Joseph Bliss, Spoken English in Ireland, 299–300. Note, however, that some authors such as Canny (‘Review of Spoken English in Ireland, 1600–1740, by Alan Bliss’, Studia Hibernica 20 [1980]: 167–70) have been rather critical of the historical accuracy of the data presented by Bliss. Future references of the after construction in earlier IrE are also recorded in Ó Corráin (‘On the “After Perfect” in Irish and Hiberno-English’, in The Celtic Englishes II, ed. Hildegard Tristram [Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 2000], 154–56). For a comparative study with other prepositional constructions see also Lukas Pietsch, ‘The Irish English “After Perfect”’.
- 28.
See J. O. Bartley, Teague, Shenkin and Sawney: Being a Historical Study of the Earliest Irish, Welsh and Scottish Characters in English Plays [Cork: Cork University Press, 1954], 39 ff.
- 29.
Kevin McCafferty, ‘I’ll Bee After Telling Dee’, 299.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Markku Filppula, The Grammar of Irish English, 104.
- 32.
This distinction between old and new is based on the date of recording of each structure in literary works.
- 33.
Jeffrey Kallen, ‘The Hiberno-English Perfect’. See also Mark Fryd (‘Some Remarks on ‘after + -ing’ in Hiberno-English’, in L’Irlande et ses langues, ed. Jean Briahult. [Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 1992], 53–62), who discusses the interpretation of after as a marker of conation.
- 34.
Kevin McCafferty, ‘Language Contact’; ‘William Carleton’; and ‘I Think that I will be’.
- 35.
Kevin McCafferty, ‘William Carleton’, 355.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
Marianne Hundt, ‘Animacy, Agency and the Spread of the Progressive in Modern English’, English Language and Linguistics 8, no. 1 (2004): 47–69.
- 38.
See Fiona Farr, Brona Murphy and Anne O’Keeffe, ‘The Limerick Corpus of Irish English: Design, Description and Application’, Teanga 21 (2004): 25–29.
- 39.
Michael McCarthy, Spoken Language and Applied Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
- 40.
Ibid.
- 41.
Mike Scott, WordSmith Tools 5 (Liverpool, UK: Lexical Analysis Software, 2008).
- 42.
Raymond Hickey, Corpus Presenter. Software for Language and Analysis (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2003).
- 43.
Barry Sloan, The Pioneers of Anglo-Irish Fiction, 1800–1850 (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1986), 173.
- 44.
The discussion of the poetic or stylistic function of his use of IrE is beyond the scope of this paper. For a discussion of this, see Alan Joseph Bliss, ‘Languages in Contact’, 40–43; Declan Kiberd, Synge and the Irish Language (London: Macmillan, 1979), 203 ff; or Raymond Hickey, Corpus Presenter, 24–26.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
The authors are grateful to Kevin McCafferty for kindly allowing us access to these data which he compiled.
- 47.
Michael Stubbs, Text and Corpus Analysis (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 232.
- 48.
Jeffrey Kallen, ‘Tense and Aspect Categories’.
- 49.
He compares the sentences France has been ruled by monarchs in the past and *France is after being ruled by monarchs in the past (Ibid., 14).
- 50.
Anne O’Keeffe and Carolina P. Amador-Moreno, ‘The Pragmatics’.
- 51.
Ibid.
- 52.
Jeffrey Kallen, ‘Sociolinguistic Variation and Methodology’; and Eddie Williams, ‘The Present Perfect in English Media Discourse in the UK’, Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics 3 (2006): 9–26.
- 53.
Anne O’Keeffe and Carolina P. Amador-Moreno, ‘The Pragmatics’; and Carolina P. Amador-Moreno and Anne O’Keeffe, ‘The Pragmatics of the be + after + V-ing Construction in Irish English: Age and Gender?’ Paper presented at the 10th International Pragmatics Conference (Göteborg, Sweden, 8–13 July 2007).
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Appendix: Contemporary Irish Authors
Appendix: Contemporary Irish Authors
Author | Work (including year) | Total no. of occurrences of be + after + V-ing |
|---|---|---|
Glenn Patterson (1961–) | Fat Lad (1992) | 2 |
Dermot Bolger (1959–) | Night Shift (1985) The Woman’s Daughter (1987) The Journey Home (1990) Emily’s Shoes (1992) Father’s Music (1997) Finbar’s Hotel (1997) In High Germany (1999) The Valparaiso Voyage (2001) | 32 |
Maeve Binchy, (1940–2012) Clare Boylan, (1948–2006) Emma Donoghue, (1969–) Anne Haverty, (1959–) Éilis Ní Dhuibhne, (1954–) Kate O’Riordan, (?) Deirdre Purcell (1945–) | Ladies’ Night at Finbar’s Hotel (1999) | 1 |
Joseph O’Connor (1963–) | The Salesman (1998) True Believers (1991) Desperadoes (1994) The Secret World of the Irish Male (1994) Red Roses and Petrol (1995) The Irish Male at Home and Abroad (1996) Inishowen (2000) The Comedian (2000) Star of the Sea: Farewell to Old Ireland (2002) Redemption Falls (2007) | 136 |
Colm Tóibín (1955–) | The Heather Blazing (1992) The Blackwater Lightship (1999) | 8 |
Mike McCormack (1965–) | Getting It in the Head (1996) | 2 |
Roddy Doyle (1958–) | The Commitments (1988) Brownbread (1989) The Snapper (1990) The Van (1991) War (1992) Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha (1993) The Woman Who Walked into Doors (1996) A Star Called Henry (1999) Not Just for Christmas (1999) Rory & Ita (2003) Oh, Play that Thing (2004) Paula Spencer (2006) | 55 |
15 Irish authors | Yeats is Dead (2002) | 6 |
Paul Muldoon (1951–) | New Weather (1994) | 1 |
Gina Moxley (1957–) Jimmy Murphy (1962–) Marina Carr (1964–) | The Dazzling Dark (1996) | 16 |
Martin McDonagh (1971–) | A Skull in Connemara (1997) The Cripple of Inishmaan (1997) | 4 |
Sebastian Barry (1955–) | The Whereabouts of Eneas McNulty (1998) | 8 |
Jamie O’Neill (1961–) | At Swim, Two Boys (2001) Kilbrack (1990) | 48 |
Maurice Leitch (1933–) | Poor Lazarus (1969) | 1 |
Patrick McCabe (1955–) | Emerald Germs of Ireland (2001) | 2 |
Michael Collins (1964–) | The Meat Eaters (1992) | 1 |
Niall Williams (1958–) | Only Say the Word (2005) | 1 |
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Amador-Moreno, C.P., O’Keeffe, A. (2018). He’s After Getting Up a Load of Wind: A Corpus-Based Exploration of be + after + V-ing Constructions in Spoken and Written Corpora. In: Villanueva Romero, D., Amador-Moreno, C., Sánchez García, M. (eds) Voice and Discourse in the Irish Context. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66029-5_3
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