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The Welfare State and the Colonial World, 1880–1914: The Case of French Equatorial Africa

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Labor on the Fringes of Empire

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

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Abstract

The limits of European abolitionism in Africa testify not only to those of imperialism but also to a broader connection between neocolonialism and the transmutation of capitalism in Europe itself, notably, the second industrial revolution and the emergence of the welfare state. This chapter shows that new rules more favorable to working people in France (and Britain as well) were purposely excluded to colonial “subjects” considered too backward to correctly enter these new rules. This chapter pays a special attention to French Equatorial Africa, a most neglected (by the historiography) area. Here, French attitudes were the most brutal, profits were low, control over the local population weak and legal rights for the local population—already weak in other colonies—were almost non-existent.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A few references (more in the following parts): Susan Miers and Igor Kopytoff, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977); Paul Lovejoy, Jan Hogendown, Slow Death of Slavery: the Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Suzanne Miers, Richard Roberts, eds., The End of Slavery in Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).

  2. 2.

    Kristin Mann, Richard Roberts, eds., Law in Colonial Africa (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1996); Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question. Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley, CA; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005); Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Cooper, Decolonization; Martin Chanok, Law Custom and Social Order. The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

  3. 3.

    M.E. Chamberlain, The Scramble for Africa (London: Routledge, 2014); Andrew Zimmermann, Alabama in Africa (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 3, Global Empires and Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Ralph Austen, African Economic History (London: Heinemann, 1987); Gareth Austin, Stephen Broadberry, “The Renaissance of African Economic History”, Introduction, special issue Economic History Review, 67, 4 (2014).

  4. 4.

    Frederick Cooper, Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: California University Press, 1997).

  5. 5.

    Joseph Millar, The Problem of Slavery as History (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2012); Dennis D. Cordell and Joel W. Gregory, eds., African Population and Capitalism: Historical Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987); Denis Cogneau, L’Afrique des inégalités. Où conduit l’histoire (Paris: Éd. de la rue d’Ulm, 2006); Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Jacques Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français. Histoire d’un divorce (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984); D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire (London, 1984).

  6. 6.

    Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890–1935 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980); Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society; Andreas Eckert, “Regulating the Social: Social Security Social Welfare, and the State in Late Colonial Tanzania”, The Journal of African History, 45, 3 (2004): 467–489; Mary Dewhurst Lewis, The Boundaries of the Republic. Migrants Rights and the Limits of Universalism in France, 1918–1940 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007); Pierre Rosanvallon, La société des égaux (Paris: Seuil, 2011); Paul-André Rosental, “Le BIT et la politique mondiale des migrations dans l’entre-deux-guerres”, Annales HSS 61, 1 (2006): 99–134; Caroline Douki, D. Feldman, Paul-André Rosental, “Pour une histoire relationnelle du ministère du Travail en France, en Italie et au Royaume-Uni dans l’entre-deux-guerres: le transnational, le bilatéral et l’interministériel en matière de politique migratoire”, In Alain Chatriot, Odile Join-Lambert, Vincent Viet, eds., Les Politiques du Travail (1906–2006). Acteurs, institutions, réseaux (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes): 143–159.

  7. 7.

    Willibald Steinmetz, ed., Private Law and Social Inequalities in the Industrial Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). Jacques Le Goff, Du silence à la parole (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2004). More in the following notes.

  8. 8.

    Suzanne Miers, Richard Roberts, eds., The End of Slavery in Africa (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988): Introduction.

  9. 9.

    Seymour Drescher, Abolitions. A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

  10. 10.

    Gold Coast Police Department Report for 1901 (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1902): 16.

  11. 11.

    Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning. Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2012).

  12. 12.

    Paul Lovejoy, Jan Hogendown, Slow Death of Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

  13. 13.

    H.F. Morris, James Read, Indirect Rule and the Search for Justice: Essays on East African Legal History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972): 112–113.

  14. 14.

    Thomas Metcalf, Imperial Connections (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007): 24.

  15. 15.

    Karuna Mantena, Alibis of Empire. Henri Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).

  16. 16.

    Miers, Kopytoff, Slavery in Africa; Miers Roberts, The End of Slavery.

  17. 17.

    Rhode House Library, Oxford, Lugard Papers, Mss. British Empire, 30–99; printed version of Lugard’s diaries: M. Perham, M. Bull, eds., The Diaries of Lord Lugard (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1959), 4 volumes. In particular, vol. 1: 171–173.

  18. 18.

    Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters.

  19. 19.

    Frederick Cooper, “From Free Labor to Family Allowances: Labor and African Society in Colonial Discourse.” American Ethnologist, 16, 4 (1989): 745–765.

  20. 20.

    Kevin Grant, A Civilized Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884–1926 (New York-London: Routledge, 2006).

  21. 21.

    See different chapters by Dennis Cordell; Martin Klein; Richard Roberts; Lee Cassanelli; J.S. Hogendorn, Paul Lovejoy in Miers, Roberts, The End.

  22. 22.

    Paul Lovejoy, Transformations of Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

  23. 23.

    Babacar Fall, Le travail forcé en AOF (Paris: Karthala, 1993).

  24. 24.

    TNA, CO 533/16, W.D. Ellis minute, 12 oct. 1906; Eastern African Protectorate, no. 8, 1906.

  25. 25.

    G. St.J. Orde Brown, The African Labourer (London, 1933 reprint Frank Cass, 1967).

  26. 26.

    Cooper, Decolonization and African Society; From Slaves to Squatters.

  27. 27.

    In 1895, the colonial government decided to federate its West African colonies. Thus, Senegal, French Sudan, Guinea and Ivory Coast formed a new administrative entity called French West Africa. Yet in practice, the government of FWA settled only in 1904–1905. Dahomey was added in 1899, Niger and Mauritania in 1904 and Upper Volta in 1919.

  28. 28.

    Among others: Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Richard Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton: Colonialism and Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800–1946 (Stanford-Stanford University Press, 1996); Fall, Le travail forcé en AOF; Boubacar Barry, La Sénégambie du XVe au XIXe siècle; traite négrière, Islam, conquête coloniale (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1988); Denise Bouche, Les villages de liberté en Afrique noire française, 1887–1910 (The Hague: Mouton, 1968); Jean-Louis Boutiller, “Les captifs en AOF, 1903–1905”, Bulletin de l’IFAN, 30, ser. B, 2 (1968): 511–535; Dennis Cordell, Joel Gregory, “Labour reservoirs and population: French colonial strategies in Koudougou, Upper Volta, 1914–1939”, Journal of African History, 23, 2 (1982): 205–224; Martin Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal: Sine-Saloum 1847–1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968); Patrick Manning, Slavery, Colonialism and Economic Growth in Dahomey, 1640–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); François Renault, Libération d’esclaves et nouvelle servitude: les rachats de captifs africains pour le compte des colonies françaises après l’abolition de l’esclavage (Abidjan: ANSOM, 1976); Richard Roberts, Warriors, Merchants and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700–1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987); Henri Brunschwig, Noirs et blancs dans l’Afrique noire française ou comment le colonisé devient colonisateur (1870–1914) (Paris: Flammarion, 1983).

  29. 29.

    AEF is the French acronym for l’Afrique équatoriale française. The general government of the AEF was officially designed in 1910. According to its 1910 boundaries, French Equatorial Africa included the Middle Congo, Gabon , Ubangi-Chari and Chad. Before that date, in 1898, Gabon , Congo and the interior areas were combined into an immense colony, called French Congo.

  30. 30.

    30 Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo.

  31. 31.

    Renault, Libération d’esclaves; Brunschwig, Noirs et blancs.

  32. 32.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo.

  33. 33.

    Jacques Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français. Histoire d’un divorce (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984).

  34. 34.

    Fall, Le travail forcé.

  35. 35.

    Cooper, Stoler, Tensions of Empire.

  36. 36.

    Conklin, A Mission to Civilize.

  37. 37.

    Lauren Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

  38. 38.

    Among the others: Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule; Richard Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton: Colonialism and the Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800–1946 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Fall, Le travail forcé; Conklin, A Mission. For a summary and discussion of the historiography in French, Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, “Histoire africaine de langue française et mondialisation”, Cahiers d’histoire. Revue d’histoire critique, 119 (2012): 141–152.

  39. 39.

    Charles Robert Ageron, France coloniale ou parti colonial (Paris: PUF, 1978).

  40. 40.

    http://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/decouvrir-l-assemblee/histoire/grands-moments-d-eloquence/jules-ferry-1885-les-fondements-de-la-politique-coloniale-28-juillet-1885. See also: Stuart Persell, The French Colonial Lobby, 1889–1938 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1983).

  41. 41.

    Raymond Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). Urban Yerri, L’Indigène dans le droit colonial français (Paris: fondation Varenne, 2010).

  42. 42.

    Jean Meyer, Histoire de la France coloniale, I. Des origines à 1914 (Paris: Colin, 1991); Jean-Marie Mayeur, Les débuts de la IIIe République, 1871–1898 (Paris: Seuil, 1973).

  43. 43.

    Madeleine Rebérieux, La République radicale? 1898–1914 (Paris: Seuil, 1975).

  44. 44.

    André Masson, “L’opinion française et les problèmes coloniaux à la fin du Second Empire”, Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer, 51, 3–4 (1962): 366–455.

  45. 45.

    Hubert Deschamps, Les méthodes et les doctrines coloniales de la France du XVIe siècle à nos jours (Paris: Colin, 1953).

  46. 46.

    Charles-Robert Ageron, L’anticolonialisme en France de 1871 à 1914 (Paris: PUF, 1973); Emmanuelle Sibeaud, “Une libre pensée impériale? Le comité de protection et de défense des indigènes (c.a. 1892–1914)”, Mille neuf cent, 1, 27 (2009): 57–74.

  47. 47.

    André Lebon, La politique de la France en Afrique, 1896–1898 (Paris: Plon, 1901).

  48. 48.

    René Gallissot, “Socialisme colonial, socialisme national des pays dominés”, L’homme et la société, 4, n. 174 (2009): 75–96.

  49. 49.

    Gilles Manceron, Jean Jaurès vers l’anticolonialisme. Du colonialisme à l’universalisme (Paris: Les petits matins, 2015); Jacqueline Lalouette, Jean Jaurès. L’assassinat, la gloire, le souvenir (Paris: Éditions Perrin, 2014); Daniel Lefeuvre, Pour en finir avec la repentance coloniale (Paris: Flammarion, 2006).

  50. 50.

    François Bédarida, “Perspectives sur le mouvement ouvrier et l’impérialisme en France au temps de la conquête coloniale”, Le mouvement social, 86 (1974): 25–42.

  51. 51.

    Conklin: A Mission: 77.

  52. 52.

    Klein Slavery and Colonial Rule; Martin Klein, “The End of Slavery in French West Africa”, in Hideaki Suzuki, ed., Abolitions as a Global Experience (Singapore: NUS Press, 2016): 199–227.

  53. 53.

    Conklin, A Mission: 41–43.

  54. 54.

    NBF, manuscript 12,807, Brazza to Chavannes, 7 oct. 1889.

  55. 55.

    Isabelle Dion, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza. Au cœur du Congo (AIX: ANOM collections, 2007); Le rapport Brazza (edited by Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch) (Paris: Le passager clandestin, 2014); Henri Brunschwig, ed., Brazza explorateur. L’Ogooué, 1875–1879 (Paris/la Haye: Mouton, 1966); Elizabeth Rabut, ed., Brazza commissaire général: le Congo français, 1886–1897 (Paris: EHESS, 1989); Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, “Le idées économiques de Brazza et les premières tentatives de compagnies concessionnaires, 1885–1898”, Cahiers d’études africaines, V, 13 (1963): 22–68.

  56. 56.

    ANOM FM MIS//42, Lettres de Liotard à la Direction de la Défense des Colonies, 28 avril, 29 mai 1895.

  57. 57.

    Roberts, Litigants and Households: 51.

  58. 58.

    Docteur Fulconis, 27 mai 1904, ANOM, fonds Brazza, 1905–1, cité in La rapport Brazza: 25.

  59. 59.

    ANOM, Rapport de Brazza au ministre des Colonies, Brazzaville, 23 août 1905, Fonds Mission Brazza 26.

  60. 60.

    Culard, 20 juillet 1904, ANOM Fonds Mission Brazza 26.

  61. 61.

    ANOM, Rapport de Brazza au ministre des Colonies, Brazzaville, 23 août 1905, Fonds Mission Brazza 26.

  62. 62.

    Journal de renseignements du poste de Fort-Sibut, 14 mai 1905, ANOM 16/PA/V/4.

  63. 63.

    Télégramme du 6 juin 1905, ANOM, FM GC XIX 4.

  64. 64.

    ANOM FM 2A FFPOL/38.

  65. 65.

    Rapport de l’inspecteur des colonies Butel au commissaire spécial, 19 novembre 1907, ANOM, FM 2AFFPOL/38.

  66. 66.

    Préface, Le rapport Brazza: 33.

  67. 67.

    These documents are in: ANOM, Fonds ministériels, AEF, SG GC, XIX 4; Fonds Mission Brazza 26: documents collected during the mission and the intermediate reports; 16 PA/V 1 à 5: Brazza’s correspondence. In particular 16 PA/V 2.

  68. 68.

    The 2014 book includes, in addition to the Brazza Report, numerous documents in the appendix that show these discrepancies and hence the veracity of the accusations and the commission’s refusal to take them into considération.

  69. 69.

    Ministère des affaires étrangères, note du 27 février 1906 à l’attention du président du Conseil, ANOM, FM SG GC XIX 4.

  70. 70.

    Henri Brunschwig, “Brazza et les scandales du Congo (1904–1906)” in L’Afrique noire au temps de l’Empire français (Paris: Denoël, 1988): 265–280.

  71. 71.

    Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery.

  72. 72.

    Jean-Frédéric Schaub, “La catégorie études coloniales est-elle indispensable?”, Annales HSC, 63, 3 (2008): 625–646.

  73. 73.

    Lovejoy, Transformations of Slavery.

  74. 74.

    Dennis Cordell, “The delicate balance of force and flight: the end of slavery in Eastern Ubangi-Shari”, in Suzanne Miers, Richard Roberts, eds., The End of Slavery in Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988): 150–171.

  75. 75.

    Elikia M’Bokolo, “Le Gabon pré-colonial: étude sociale et économique”, Cahiers d’études africaines, 17, 66–67 (1977): 331–344.

  76. 76.

    Lovejoy, Transformations: 193.

  77. 77.

    Lovejoy, Transformations: 246.

  78. 78.

    Gilles Sautter, De l’Atlantique au fleuve Congo. Une géographie du sous-peuplement. République du Congo, république gabonaise (Paris: Mouton, 1966).

  79. 79.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo: 76.

  80. 80.

    Conklin, A Mission; Cooper and Stoler, Tensions of Empire.

  81. 81.

    Patrick Manning, Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

  82. 82.

    ANOM FM SG GCOG/XIV 1 et 2 recrutement de travailleurs Kroumen.

  83. 83.

    Manning, Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa: 37.

  84. 84.

    On this ambivalence in FWA : Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule.

  85. 85.

    ANOM MI 131MIOM/3 Gaston Gaillard, Traité de protectorat, de commerce, de personnes avec les chefs Zoubia et Coumba, 28 août 1891.

  86. 86.

    ANOM FM SG Soud/XIV/1. See also: Bouche, Les villages.

  87. 87.

    ANOM AEF GGAEF 2D/9 Mission Dybowski, 1892. Also Jean Dybowski, La route du Tchad du Loango au Chari (Paris: Firmin Didot, 1893).

  88. 88.

    ANOM FM MIS//12 Mission scientifique et économique par Auguste Chevalier.

    Also: Auguste Chevalier, Mission Chari-lac Tchad, 1902–1904 (Paris: Challamel, 1907).

  89. 89.

    Fall, Le travail forcé; François Renault, “L’abolition de l’esclavage au Sénégal. L’attitude de l’administration française 1848–1905”. Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer, 58, 1 (1971): 5–80.

  90. 90.

    ANOM Equatorial Africa, government, G 1 AEF 2H/8, From the Governor of Cameroon to the Minister of Colonies, September 14, 1917.

  91. 91.

    ANOM, G 1 AEF 2H/8, From the Governor of Cameroon to the Minister of Colonies, September 14, 1917.

  92. 92.

    Cordell, “The Delicate Balance”.

  93. 93.

    Jean-Louis Boutiller, “Les captifs en AOF (1903–1905)”, Bulletin de l’IFAN, 30, série B, 2 (1968): 520.

  94. 94.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 4(1) D2. N’Djolé, Rapport du capitaine Curault, administrateur de la région de l’Ogooué sur le groupement hostile de Mikongo et la nécessité d’une répression immédiate contre le chef Ngoua-Midoumbi et ses partisans, Années 1906.

  95. 95.

    ANOM Equatorial Africa, government, G 1 AEF 2H/8.

  96. 96.

    Lovejoy, Transformations. Also François Renault, “L’abolition de l’esclavage au Sénégal: l’attitude de l’administration française, 1848–1905”, Revue française d’outre-mer, 58, 1 (1971): 5–80.

  97. 97.

    Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Richard Roberts, “The End of Slavery in French Soudan, 1905–1914”, in Miers, Roberts, The End of Slavery: 282–307. Marie Rodet, Les migrantes ignorées du Haut-Sénégal, 1900–1946 (Paris: Karthala, 2009).

  98. 98.

    Cordell, “The Delicate Balance”.

  99. 99.

    ANOM AEF GGAEF 3D/3. Mission Fillon.

  100. 100.

    ANOM FM 2 AFFPOL/19 Incidents du Bas M’Bomou.

  101. 101.

    ANOM, GGAEF 8Q58.

  102. 102.

    ANOM, GGAEF 2H 15.

  103. 103.

    ANOM, G 1 AEF 2H/8.

  104. 104.

    David Fieldhouse, “The Economic Exploitation of Africa: Some British and French Comparisons”. Prosser Gifford and William Roger Louis, eds., France and Britain in Africa: Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971): 659–660.

  105. 105.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo.

  106. 106.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo.

  107. 107.

    Special Issue of “Business Empires in Equatorial Africa”. African Economic History, 12 (1983): 13–31.

  108. 108.

    ANOM FM MIS//12 Mission scientifique et économique par Auguste Chevalier.

    Also: Auguste Chevalier, Mission Chari-lac Tchad, 1902–1904 (Paris: Challamel, 1907).

  109. 109.

    Sautter, De l’Atlantique au fleuve Congo.

  110. 110.

    ANOM FM SG GCOG/XIV, 1 et 2.

  111. 111.

    La Dépêche coloniale, 23 décembre 1903; Coquery-Vidrovitch, Congo, 1: 103.

  112. 112.

    ANOM, GGAEF 8Q58.

  113. 113.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 8Q59, Libreville, Rapport d’inspection de la Société du Haut-Ogooué, Année 1908.

  114. 114.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 2H 15, Correspondance du Commissaire général du Gabon au Commissaire général dans les possessions françaises et dépendances, Année 1907.

  115. 115.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 2H 15.

  116. 116.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 8Q59, Libreville, Rapport d’inspection.

  117. 117.

    ANOM, FP, PA/16(V)/5 (mission Brazza, notes); FP/PA/16(V)/3 (criminal cases, women).

  118. 118.

    ANOM, FP, PA/16(V)/5 (mission Brazza, notes); FP/PA/16(V)/3 (criminal cases, women).

  119. 119.

    ANOM, FP, PA/16(V)/5 (mission Brazza, notes); FP/PA/16(V)/3 (criminal cases, women). See in particular Bobichon, Report on portage.

  120. 120.

    ANOM FM 2AFFPOL/19. Observations of the French League for the Protection of Human Rights and the Womens international League for Peace and Freedom on the system adopted by the large concessions.

  121. 121.

    Eisa Assidon, Le commerce captif: les sociétés françaises de l’Afrique noire (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1989).

  122. 122.

    E. de Dampierre, Un royaume Bandia du Haut Oubangui (Paris: Plon, 1967).

  123. 123.

    ANOM FM/2AFFPOL/21, sociétés concessionnaires, Société des sultanats.

  124. 124.

    ANOM, FM, 2AFFPOL/4 (compagnies concessionnaires); FM/2AFFPOL/21.

  125. 125.

    ANOM, FM, 2AFFPOL/25 (sociétés concessionnaires, recrutement de la main d’œuvre indigène); 2AFFPOL/29, Société des Sultanats.

  126. 126.

    ANOM FM, 2AFFPOL/1 (commission des concessions, réclamations formulées par des collectivités indigènes).

  127. 127.

    ANOM FM, 2AFFPOL/13 (compagnies concessionnaires) et 2AFFPOL/29, Société des Sultanats.

  128. 128.

    Claude Robineau, “Contribution à l’histoire du Congo: la domination européenne et l’exemple de Souanké (1900–1960)”, Cahiers d’études africaines, 7, 26 (1967): 300–344.

  129. 129.

    ANOM FM 2 AFFPOL/7, Cautionnement Allemagne.

  130. 130.

    ANOM 2 AFFPOL/52 et FM SG/COG XV, Compagnie de la N’Goko-Sangha.

  131. 131.

    ANOM FM 2AFFPOL/1, Instance de la N’Goko Sangha.

  132. 132.

    ANOM FM 2 AFFPOL/52, Compagnie de la N’goko-Sangha; FM SG GCOG XV/84,85.

  133. 133.

    ANOM FM, 2 AFFPOL/52 Compagnie de la N’Goko-Sangha.

  134. 134.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Congo, II: 319.

  135. 135.

    ANOM FM, 2 AFFPOL/14 Affaires concernant l’Impôt de capitation.

  136. 136.

    ANOM SG/AEF, GGAEF/5Y/19.

  137. 137.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Congo, II: 352–354.

  138. 138.

    ANOM SG/AEF, GGAEF/5Y/19.

  139. 139.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 8Q58.

    On this company: Coquery-Vidrovitch, Congo; Fabrice Anicet Montagou, Une entreprise colonial et ses travailleurs: la Société du haut-Ogooué et la main d’œuvre africaine, 1863–1963, PhD, University of Toulouse, 2014; Nicolas Metegue N’nah, L’histoire de la formation du peuple gabonais et de sa lutte contre la domination coloniale (1839–1960), PhD Paris 1, 1994.

  140. 140.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 8Q58 and 8Q59 several documents.

  141. 141.

    On these debates: Coquery-Vidrovitch, Congo; Joseph Denoix Saint-Marc, Des compagnies privilégiées de colonisation. De leur création et de leur organisation dans les possessions françaises, PhD, Bordeaux, 1897; Maurice Hamelin, Des concessions coloniales. Étude sur les modes d’aliénation des terres domaniales en Algérie et dans les colonies françaises du Congo (Paris: Librairie nouvelle de droit et de jurisprudence Arthur Rousseau, 1898).

  142. 142.

    Henri Cuvillier-Fleury, La mise en valeur du Congo français (Paris: Librairie de la société du recueil général des lois et des arrêts, 1904). Union Congolaise, Les sociétés concessionnaires du Congo français depuis 1905. Situation financière, plantations, main-d’oeuvre (1906–1908), (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1909).

  143. 143.

    G. A. Nzenguet Iguemba, Colonisation, fiscalité et mutations au Gabon, 1910–1947 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2005).

  144. 144.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 8Q58 and 8Q59.

  145. 145.

    Alain Dewerpe, Le monde du travail en France, 1800–1950 (Paris: Colin, 1989); Yves Lequin and Pierre Delsalle, La brouette et la navette: tisserands, paysans et fabricants dans la région de Roubaix et de Tourcoing, 1800–1848 (Lille: Westhoek, 1985); Jacques Le Goff, Du silence à la parole (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2004).

  146. 146.

    Bruno Veneziani, “The Evolution of the Contract of Employment”, in Bob Hepple, ed., The Making of the Labor Law in Europe, (London: Mansell, 1986): 31–72.

  147. 147.

    Simon Deakin, “Contrat de travail”, in Alessandro Stanziani, ed., Dictionnaire historique de l’économie-droit, XVIIIe–XXe siècles. (Paris: LGDJ, 2007): 289–298.

  148. 148.

    Gilles Postel-Vinay, “The Dis-integration of Traditional Labor Markets in France: From Agriculture and Industry to Agriculture or Industry”, in Labor Market Evolution, eds., George Grantham and Mary MacKinnon (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 64–83.

  149. 149.

    Christian Topalov, ed., Laboratoires du nouveau siècle. la nébuleuse réformatrice et ses réseaux en France, 1880–1914 (Paris: EHESS, 1999).

  150. 150.

    Isabelle Lespinet-Moret, L’Office du Travail 1891–1914. La République et la réforme sociale (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2007).

  151. 151.

    On this, see among others: Robert Salais, Nicolas Bavarez, and Benedicte Reynaud, L’invention du chômage (Paris: PUF, 1986).

  152. 152.

    Marta Torre-Schaub, Essai sur la construction juridique de la catégorie de marché (Paris: LGDJ, 2002). Alessandro Stanziani, Rules of Exchange: French Capitalism in Comparative Perspective, Eighteenth to Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

  153. 153.

    Alain Chatriot, Odile Join-Lambert, Vincent Viet, eds., Les politiques du Travail (1906–2006). Acteurs, institutions, réseaux (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2006).

  154. 154.

    Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, De l’immigré au citoyen (Paris: La documentation française, 1989).

  155. 155.

    Eugène Spuller, Rapport présenté à la Commission d’enquête parlementaire sur la situation des ouvriers de l’agriculture et de l’industrie en France, Annales de la Chambre des députés, documents parlementaires, 1884, t. II, annexe 2695.

  156. 156.

    Alessandro Stanziani, Sailors, Slaves, and Immigrants. Bondage in the Indian Ocean World, 1750–1914 (New York: Palgrave, 2014).

  157. 157.

    Vincent Viet, Histoire des Français venus d’ailleurs, de 1850 à nos jours (Paris: Perrin, 2004); Pierre Milza, Voyage en Ritalie (Paris: Plon, 1993).

  158. 158.

    Marc Crapez, La gauche révolutionnaire. Mythes de la plèbe et de la race (Paris: Berg, 1997); Laurent Dornel, La France hostile. Socio histoire de la xénophobie (1870–1914) (Paris: Hachette, 2004).

  159. 159.

    Michelle Perrot, “Les rapports entre ouvriers français et étrangers (1871–1893)”, Bulletin de la Société d’histoire moderne, 12 (1960): 4–9.

  160. 160.

    Jules Guesde, Etat, politique et morale de classe (Paris: Giard et Brière, 1901).

  161. 161.

    Annales de la Chambre des députés, Débats parlementaires, tome 1, séance du 2 février 1897. Voir aussi: Pierre Rosanvallon, La société des égaux (Paris: Seuil, 2011).

  162. 162.

    Patrick Weil Qu’est-ce qu’un Français? Histoire de la nationalité française depuis la Révolution (Paris: Grasset, 2002).

  163. 163.

    Caroline Douki, David Feldman et Paul-André Rosental, “Y a-t-il des politiques migratoires nationales?”, Les Cahiers du Centre de Recherches Historiques, 42 (2008): 97–105.

  164. 164.

    Nancy Green et François Weil, eds., Citoyenneté et émigration. Les politiques du départ (Paris: Éditions de l’EHESS, 2006).

  165. 165.

    Raymond Vacquier, Au temps des factoreries, 1900–1950 (Paris: Karthala, 1986): 247.

  166. 166.

    Journal officiel du Congo français, circular dated July 15, 1900.

  167. 167.

    From the Ministry of Colonies to Albert Grodet , May 1901, ANOM AEF GGAEF, 8 Q, XIV-1.

  168. 168.

    ANOM AEF 2H/8.

  169. 169.

    See Le rapport Brazza.

  170. 170.

    François Zuccarelli, “Le recrutement de travailleurs sénégalais par l’État indépendant du Congo, 1884–1896”, Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer, X LVII, 168–169 (1960): 475–481.

  171. 171.

    ANOM FM 1AFFPOL/1703 Indigénat. FM 1AFFPOL/1700 Coutumes indigènes Afrique.

    A growing bibliography is available. Among the others: Martine Fabre, “L’indigénat: des petites polices discriminatoires et dérogatoires”, in Bernard Durand, Martine Fabre, Mamadou Badji, eds., Le juge et l’Outre-mer, vol. 5 (Lille: Centre d’histoire judiciaire, 2010): 273–310; Olivier Le Cour Grandemaison, De l’indigénat (Paris: Zone, 2010); Isabelle Merle, “De la légalisation de la violence en contexte colonial. Le régime de l’indigénat en question”, Politix, 17, 66 (2004): 137–162; Laurent Manière, “Deux conceptions de l’action judiciaire aux colonies. Magistrats et administrateurs en AOF (1887–1912)”, Clio-Thémis 4 (2011): http://www.cliothemis.com/Clio-Themis-numero-4

    Also Emmanuelle Saada, “Nation and Empire in the French Context”, in George Steinmetz, ed., Sociology and Empire. The Imperial Entanglements of a Discipline (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2013): 321–340.

  172. 172.

    Weil, Qu’est-ce qu’un Français?

  173. 173.

    James Lehning, To Be a Citizen. The Political Culture of the Early French Third Republic (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001). See also Pierre Rosanvallon, La démocratie inachevée (Paris: Gallimard, 2000).

  174. 174.

    ANOM FM 1AFFPOL/1346. Codé indigénat, AEF.

  175. 175.

    Richard, Litigants and Households. See also: L.H. Gann, Peter Duignan, eds., African Proconsuls: European Governors in Africa (New York: Free Press, 1978).

  176. 176.

    ANOM AP 1645/3, Procès verbal de la Commission chargée de la réorganisaion de la justice dans les territoires du Gouvernement Général de l’AOF”.

  177. 177.

    Conklin, A Mission: 103–104.

  178. 178.

    Shamil Jeppie, Ebrahim Moosa, and Richard Roberts, eds., Muslim Family Law in Sub-Saharan Africa. Colonial Legacies and Post-Colonial Challenges (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009), Introduction.

  179. 179.

    FM 1AFFPOL/1693 Justice indigène, rapports d’inspection.

  180. 180.

    Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures. Roberts, Households and Litigants.

  181. 181.

    Bonny Ibhawoh, Imperial Justice. Africans in Empire’s Courts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

  182. 182.

    Jean Runner, Les droits politiques des indigènes des colonies (Paris: Larose, 1927). Raymond Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). Emmanuelle Saada, “Nation and Empire in the French Context”, in George Steinmetz (dir.) Sociology and Empire. The Imperial Entanglements of a Discipline (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2013): 321–340.

  183. 183.

    Rodet, Les migrantes.

  184. 184.

    Roberts, Litigants and Households.

  185. 185.

    Silvère Ngoundos Idourah, Colonisation et confiscation de la justice en Afrique. L’administration de la justice au Gabon, Moyen-Congo, Oubangui-Chari et Tchad: de la création des colonies à l’aube des indépendances (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001).

  186. 186.

    ANOM FM SG GCOG/VIII/1, also 4, 6, 7, 8.

  187. 187.

    Archives Nationales du Congo Brazzaville GG 348, Plaintes, requêtes et réclamations indigènes, 1922–1938. Law courts statistics available only since 1929 (GG 357).

  188. 188.

    ANOM FM 1AFFPOL/2859.

  189. 189.

    ANOM FM 1 AFFPOL/1700. Voir aussi Pierre Constantin, Organisation de la justice indigène en Afrique Equatoriale Française (Paris: Privat, 1912).

  190. 190.

    Archives Nationales du Congo Brazzaville, GG338 Etat des jugements des tribunaux indigènes, 1908–1919.

  191. 191.

    Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo, vol. 1: 272.

  192. 192.

    Gilbert-Desvallon, “Note sur le service de la justice au Congo Français, 29 mars 1905”, ANOM FP PA 16 (V) 3.

  193. 193.

    ANOM, GGAEF 8Q59, Libreville, Rapport d’inspection.

  194. 194.

    ANOM, GGAEF, 8Q58 and 8Q59; GGAEF, 4(1) D 10.

  195. 195.

    Miers, Kopytoff, Slavery in Africa; R.C. Law, From Slave Trade to Legitimate Commerce: the Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

  196. 196.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8.

  197. 197.

    ANOM AEF G1 AEF 2H/8, From the Commanding Administrator of the Ogooué region to the Commissioner-General of AEF, June 20, 1901.

  198. 198.

    ANOM AEF G1 AEF 2H/8, From the Commanding Administrator of the Ogooué region to the Commissioner-General of AEF, June 20, 1901.

  199. 199.

    ANOM, G 1 AEF 2H/8, Note on labor relationships by the Commanding Administrator of the Ogooué region.

  200. 200.

    ANOM, G 1 AEF 2H/8. Planters and the Deputy Lieutenant of the Ogooué region, several documents, 1901–2.

  201. 201.

    ANOM, G 1 AEF 2H/8, 26 September 1901, From Mr. Janselme to the Governor-General of the Congo.

  202. 202.

    ANOM AEF G1 AEF 2H/8, several documents, 1901, particularly the reports concerning the Mayumba and Loango regions.

  203. 203.

    ANOM AEF G1 AEF 2H/8 several documents, 1901.

  204. 204.

    Ibid., Reports from the Brazzaville and Libreville regions.

  205. 205.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8.

  206. 206.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Paris 10 January 1910, From the Union of Concession Companies in the French Congo to the Minister of Colonies.

  207. 207.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Société du Haut Ogooué; Compagnie française au Congo occidental; Ochounka plantation.

  208. 208.

    Ibid., Report from the lieutenant-governor of the Middle Congo to the governor-general of the Congo, May 27, 1909.

  209. 209.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, several documents.

  210. 210.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8 From the Lieutenant-Governor of the Middle Congo to the Governor-General of the Congo, June 13, 1909.

  211. 211.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Report from the Office of Agricultural Inspection to the Governor-General of the Congo, December 23, 1908.

  212. 212.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Draft labor law in the colonies, October 1910.

  213. 213.

    Ibid.

  214. 214.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Draft labor law in the colonies, October 1910.

  215. 215.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, From the Governor-General of AEF to the Minister of Colonies, February 17, 1911.

  216. 216.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Letter to the Governor, October 1911.

  217. 217.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, From the Justice of the Peace of Libreville to the Governor, August 1911.

  218. 218.

    ANOM AEF G 1 AEF 2H/8, Letter dated 31 August 1911 from the administrator of the district of Ouroungous to the Justice of the Peace with jurisdiction over Libreville.

  219. 219.

    Arthur Girault, Principes de colonisation et de legislation coloniale (Paris: Librairie de la Société du Recueil général des lois et des arrêts, 1904). See also Roberts, Litigants and Households: 79–83.

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    Stanziani, A. (2018). The Welfare State and the Colonial World, 1880–1914: The Case of French Equatorial Africa. In: Labor on the Fringes of Empire. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70392-3_6

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