Abstract
This chapter explains the pedagogical rationale for the design of digital audiotexts of three books of Paradise Lost at the University of Texas from 2005 to 2009. Developed from the conviction that hearing the poem is as vital as reading it for modern readers, the audiotexts help them do both simultaneously. The chapter situates the audiotexts in relation to the history of editing, Milton’s writing process, criticism on the structure and sonic qualities of his verse, and recent research on reading practices and multimedia learning, including the cognitive reception of visual and oral language. The chapter concludes by proposing the audiotexts as a model for multimodal social editions, and considers how they might be refashioned given developments in social media, eBook marketing, and mobile technology since 2009.
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Notes
- 1.
Stanley Eugene Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities (1980, repr. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 305–21.
- 2.
Jerome J. McGann, A Critique of Modern Textual Criticism (1983, repr., Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1992).
- 3.
Cf. D. F. McKenzie, Bibliography and the Sociology of Texts (1986, repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 31–53; Jerome J. McGann, The Textual Condition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 69–87.
- 4.
By social edition we mean, extrapolating from the previously cited works by McGann and McKenzie, an edition that would be similar in aims to a genetic or synoptic edition but include important versions, even unauthorized editions, in their entirety rather than merely documenting their relations and variant readings. In recent years, the term has been applied to editions publicly edited on social media platforms and soliciting crowd-sourced contributions; see Ray Siemens et al., “Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media,” Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.4 (2012): 445–61, doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqs013.
- 5.
For more on The John Milton Reading Room, see Cordelia Zukerman’s Chap. 2 in this volume.
- 6.
For an account of the strengths and weaknesses of EEBO as a scholarly environment, see Diana Kichuk, “Metamorphosis: Remediation in Early English Books Online (EEBO),” Literary and Linguistic Computing 22.3 (September 2007): 291–303.
- 7.
According to usability expert Jakob Nielsen, studies conducted during the first few years of the web found that users would click to a new webpage rather than scroll down to finish reading a webpage. Users later became accustomed to scrolling, however, and Nielsen now recommends presenting long articles on a single webpage rather than dividing them into shorter webpages that users click through. See Jakob Nielsen, “Scrolling and Attention,” 2010, Nielsen Norman Group, <https://www.nngroup.com/articles/scrolling-and-attention>. Accessed August 2017. Nielsen’s advice may make sense for casual reading, but a study enlisting 77 university student readers found that those reading a complex text in a paginated onscreen format exhibited better comprehension than those reading the same text in a scrolling onscreen format. The researchers speculate that visually demarcated pages provide a surface representation of the text that must otherwise be mentally constructed, and that page breaks serve as orienting landmarks, goals to reach, and/or prompts to engage in self-assessment of understanding before moving to the next page. See Christopher A. Sanchez and Jennifer Wiley, “To Scroll or Not to Scroll: Scrolling, Working Memory Capacity, and Comprehending Complex Texts,” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 51.5 (October 2009): 730–38, doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720809352788. For a diachronic study of how pages enable, shape, and constrain thought, see Bonnie Mak, How the Page Matters (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012).
- 8.
See, for example, the contributions to George Landow, ed., Hyper/Text/Theory (Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
- 9.
Citations of Milton’s poetry are from William Kerrigan, John Peter Rumrich, and Stephen M. Fallon, eds., The Complete Poetry and Essential Prose of John Milton (New York: Modern Library, 2007).
- 10.
See Olin Bjork, John Rumrich, and Shea Suski, eds., Paradise Lost Audiotexts, University of Texas at Austin Liberal Arts Instructional Technology Services (2005–2009), <http://www.laits.utexas.edu/miltonpl/>. Accessed August 2017.
- 11.
McKenzie’s posthumous edition of William Congreve is not much different in design from critical editions of the intentionalist school. See D. F. McKenzie and C. Y. Ferdinand, ed. The Works of William Congreve (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). McGann points to his own Rossetti Archive as a model for digital social-text editing in Jerome McGann, “From Text to Work: Digital Tools and the Emergence of the Social Text,” Romanticism on the Net 41–42 (2006), doi:https://doi.org/10.7202/013153ar.
- 12.
David Scott Kastan, ed., Paradise Lost (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 2005), lxxii.
- 13.
Roy C. Flannagan, ed., John Milton: Paradise Lost (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 59.
- 14.
Stephen B. Dobranski, “Editing Milton: The Case against Modernisation.” The Review of English Studies 59.240 (2008): 392–408 (406).
- 15.
See Richard A. Lanham, The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); J. David Bolter and Richard A. Grusin, Remediation: Understanding New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999); Marie-Laure Ryan, Narrative as Virtual Reality 2: Revisiting Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015).
- 16.
David Harper, in a manuscript entitled “Identity, Politics, and the Mythical Scotsman at the Origin of English Literary Studies,” persuasively identifies P. H. as Peter Hume (1640–1707), a non-conformist servant in the royal household who rose to be Yeoman of the Removing Wardrobe and Keeper of the Standing Wardrobe at St. James.
- 17.
On oral reading of Milton’s epic and its value, see Beverley Sherry, “Paradise Lost Aloud: Then and Now,” in What Is the Human? Australian Voices from the Humanities, ed. L. E. Semler, Bob Hodge, and Philippa Kelly (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2012), 268–83; and Angelica Duran, “‘Join thy Voice’: Oral Reading of Paradise Lost,” Milton Quarterly 44.4 (December 2010), 254–71.
- 18.
See Matthew Bailey, ed., Cantar de Mio Cid. University of Texas at Austin Liberal Arts Instructional Technology Services, (2002–). http://miocid.wlu.edu/.
- 19.
Whereas with print books, page turning has become a cognitively laden but reflexive physical act, the means of turning pages in eBooks have not been standardized and must therefore be discovered by readers.
- 20.
T. S. Eliot, “Milton II (1947),” in On Poetry and Poets (London: Faber & Faber, 1957), 146–61 (157).
- 21.
Duran, “‘Join thy Voice,’” 254.
- 22.
Eliot defines the auditory imagination as “the feeling for syllable and rhythm, penetrating far below the conscious levels of thought and feeling, invigorating every word.” See T. S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism: Studies in the Relation of Criticism to Poetry in England (London: Faber, 1933), 118–19.
- 23.
Leah S. Marcus, Unediting the Renaissance (London: Routledge, 1996), 211. For an analysis of the vestiges of speech and dialogue in seventeenth-century printed books, see the essay “Speech-Manuscript-Print” in D. F. McKenzie, Making Meaning: “Printers of the Mind” and Other Essays, ed. Peter D. McDonald and Michael F. Suarez (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), 337–57.
- 24.
C. S. Lewis, A Preface to Paradise Lost (London: Oxford University Press, 1942), 39. For a more comprehensive schema, see Robert Beum, “So Much Gravity and Ease,” in Language and Style in Milton; a Symposium in Honor of the Tercentenary of Paradise Lost, ed. Ronald David Emma and John T. Shawcross (New York: F. Ungar, 1967), 333–68 (348).
- 25.
Though the sonority of Milton’s style is universally acknowledged, some critics deny that it is dramatic. See, for example, Balachandra Rajan, “Paradise Lost” and the Seventeenth Century Reader (1947, repr. London: Chatto & Windus, 1962), 108–31.
- 26.
Alfred Lord Tennyson, “Milton. Alcaics,” Cornhill Magazine (December 1863), 707.
- 27.
Matthew Arnold, On Translating Homer. Last Words. A Lecture Given at Oxford (London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1862), 33.
- 28.
Edwin Guest, A History of English Rhythms (London: W. Pickering, 1838), 529.
- 29.
“Milton II (1947),” 157–58.
- 30.
Beum, “So Much Gravity and Ease,” 366.
- 31.
Aristotle, Rhetoric, trans. W. Rhys Roberts (New York: Modern Library, 1954), bk. 3, ch. 1, 1404a.
- 32.
Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London: Routledge, 1991), 119.
- 33.
The corrector would follow the proof visually and mark the mistakes while his “boy” read aloud from the copy. See Philip Gaskell, A New Introduction to Bibliography (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 1995), 112.
- 34.
Ong, Orality and Literacy, 136. Ong coined the term secondary orality in “The Literate Orality of Popular Culture Today,” a chapter in Walter J. Ong, Rhetoric, Romance, and Technology; Studies in the Interaction of Expression and Culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971).
- 35.
Ong, Orality and Literacy, 135–36.
- 36.
Subvocalization and phonics have often been stigmatized in reading instruction based on the commonsensical observation that readers who need to sound out words will read more slowly than those who read by sight recognition. However, psychologist Mark Seidenberg argues that educators have confused means and ends and conflated covert, sotto voce speech with phonology, which he views as an effective method of using speech sounds to learn to recognize words visually. See Mark S. Seidenberg, Language at the Speed of Sight: How We Read, Why So Many Can’t, and What Can Be Done about It (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 75–76.
- 37.
Don M. Wolfe, ed., Complete Prose Works of John Milton, 8 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953–1982), 1.885.
- 38.
John S. Diekhoff, ed., Milton on Himself: Milton’s Utterances upon Himself and His Works, 2nd ed. (London: Cohen & West, 1966), 75 n8.
- 39.
Marcus, Unediting the Renaissance, 209.
- 40.
Edward Phillips, “The Life of Mr. John Milton,” in Letters of State, Written by John Milton… (London, 1694), i-xliv (xix).
- 41.
D. C. Greetham, Textual Scholarship: An Introduction (New York: Garland Publishing, 1994), 341–42.
- 42.
A 2005 Oxford edition is a notable exception. In an Afterword, novelist Philip Pullman writes, “There are many ways to read this poem, but if you fall under its spell you will want to understand it as well as you can; and that means, at the very least, seeing all the patterns of imagery, discovering the meanings of all the classical references, untangling the occasionally complicated cosmology, and understanding the structures of rhetoric that shape the whole work. In a reading like this one, ten thousand jewels have had to lie untouched. This edition has been prepared without annotations, in order to let the poem stand alone. But there are many annotated editions of Paradise Lost, some of which have greatly helped my own reading; no one who wants to explore further need do so without expert guidance.” See Stephen Orgel and Jonathan Goldberg, eds., John Milton: Paradise Lost, introduced by Philip Pullman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
- 43.
G. Thomas Tanselle, “Some Principles for Editorial Apparatus,” Studies in Bibliography 25 (1972), 41–88 (88).
- 44.
We chose to sacrifice this correspondence in the interest of having fewer lines per page. The pagination of the audiotexts follows the 1688 fourth edition at a ratio of 1:2 (17 lines per page to 34 lines per page). However, we used the 1674 second edition as our copy-text.
- 45.
Articles, digital tools, and social networks that might be helpful in enlisting readers in editing are featured in Ray Siemens et al., “Pertinent Discussions toward Modeling the Social Edition: Annotated Bibliographies,” Digital Humanities Quarterly 6.1 (2012), <http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/1/000111/000111.html>. Accessed August 2017.
- 46.
Steve Jobs, “Thoughts on Flash,” Apple.com , April 2010, <https://www.apple.com/hotnews/thoughts-on-flash>. Accessed August 2017.
- 47.
Danny Winokur, “Flash to Focus on PC Browsing and Mobile Apps; Adobe to More Aggressively Contribute to HTML5,” Adobe.com , 9 November 2011, <https://blogs.adobe.com/conversations/2011/11/flash-focus.html>. Accessed August 2017.
- 48.
The downloadable audiotexts are executable files containing the Flash player.
- 49.
The Codex Group President, Peter Hildick-Smith, reported these statistics at a presentation titled “Tablets Killing E-Books” at BookExpo America 2016. See Jim Milliot, “As E-Book Sales Decline, Digital Fatigue Grows,” PublishersWeekly.com , 17 June 2016, https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/digital/retailing/article/70696-as-e-book-sales-decline-digital-fatigue-grows.html.
- 50.
Two Sides, “Reading from Paper or Reading from Screens. What Do Consumers Prefer? A Survey of U.S. Consumers Undertaken by Two Sides,” Two Sides, May 2015, <http://www.twosidesna.org/download/TS-North-America-Reading-from-paper-or-screens.pdf>. Accessed August 2017.
- 51.
Irene Picton, “The Impact of EBooks on the Reading Motivation and Reading Skills of Children and Young People: A Rapid Literature Review,” ERIC, 2014, <https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED560635>. Accessed August 2017. A recent study found that more screen time equates to less reading; see Margaret K. Merga and Saiyidi Mat Roni, “The Influence of Access to eReaders, Computers and Mobile Phones on Children’s Book Reading Frequency,” Computers & Education 109 (June 2017): 187–96, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.02.016.
- 52.
Naomi S. Baron, Words Onscreen: The Fate of Reading in a Digital World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 86.
- 53.
Baron, Words Onscreen, 88.
- 54.
Baron, Words Onscreen, 105–6.
- 55.
Geoff Kaufman and Mary Flanagan, “High-Low Split: Divergent Cognitive Construal Levels Triggered by Digital and Non-Digital Platforms,” in Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2773–77, ACM Digital Library, Association for Computing Machinery, 2016, doi:https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858550.
- 56.
Kaufman and Flanagan, “High-Low Split,” 2776.
- 57.
Baron, Words Onscreen, 42–60. N. Katherine Hayles offers a more positive account of searching, scanning, skimming, and similar reading strategies. She calls this set of strategies hyper reading, borrowing and extending a term coined by James Sosnoski in 1999. Hayles hopes that parents and literature instructors can teach students when and how to shift between hyper reading and close reading. See N. Katherine Hayles, How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012), 61–69.
- 58.
Alan Paivio. Imagery and Verbal Processes (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1971).
- 59.
See, for example, Faria Sana, Tina Weston, and Nicholas J. Cepeda, “Laptop Multitasking Hinders Classroom Learning for Both Users and Nearby Peers,” Computers & Education 62 (March 2013): 24–31, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.003.
- 60.
On cognitive load theory and redundancy, see John Sweller, “The Redundancy Principle in Multimedia Learning,” in Richard E. Mayer, ed., The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 159–67. On the dual processing theory of multimedia learning and redundancy, see Roxana Moreno and Richard E. Mayer, “Verbal Redundancy in Multimedia Learning: When Reading Helps Listening,” Journal of Educational Psychology, 94.1 (March 2002): 156–63, doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.1.156.
- 61.
Olusola O. Adesope and John C. Nesbit, “Verbal Redundancy in Multimedia Learning Environments: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Educational Psychology 104.1 (2012): 250–63, doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026147.
- 62.
The William Blake Archive (<http://www.blakearchive.org>) and The Victorian Web (<http://www.victorianweb.org>) are perhaps the most well-known examples.
- 63.
A review of 38 experiments on hypertext reading found that in most cases hyperlinks detracted from comprehension of a text. See Diana DeStefano and Jo-Anne LeFevre, “Cognitive Load in Hypertext Reading: A Review,” Computers in Human Behavior 23.3 (May 2007): 1616–41.
- 64.
Amazon, “Audible and Amazon Introduce ‘Immersion Reading’ and ‘Whispersync for Voice’—Two Momentous Steps Forward for Reading,” press release, 6 September 2012, <http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=176060&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1732591>. Accessed August 2017.
- 65.
David Rose and Bridget Dalton, “Plato Revisited: Learning through Listening in the Digital World,” National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2007, <http://www.udlcenter.org/sites/udlcenter.org/files/Plato_Revisited.pdf>. Accessed August 2017.
- 66.
Web 2.0 is a term coined by Darcy DiNucci in 1999 to classify websites that enable users to add content and/or to interact with other users.
- 67.
This platform might be a free and open-source web/mobile app. First, the user would tag a text with timings. The app could then receive information about the time-state of video or audio playing in another app and display the timed text accordingly. Ideally, the user would be able to select words within the text and send the associated timings to an audio/video app that would then start the playback at the requested time. Users could share time-tagged texts, as well as links to corresponding audio/video, through social media.
- 68.
See Coleman Hutchison, Olin Bjork, and Michael Winship, eds., Leaves of Grass: Walt Whitman, University of Texas at Austin Liberal Arts Instructional Technology Services, 2008, <http://www.laits.utexas.edu/leavesofgrass>. Accessed August 2017.
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Bjork, O., Rumrich, J. (2018). “Is There a Class in This Audiotext?” Paradise Lost and the Multimodal Social Edition. In: Currell, D., Issa, I. (eds) Digital Milton. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90478-8_3
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Print ISBN: 978-3-319-90477-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-90478-8
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)