Abstract
What went through the mind of Antoine Lavoisier right before the guillotine descended upon his neck, cutting off so much promise as one of the founders of modern chemistry? We cannot help but wonder. Perhaps he was thinking about the experiments he would never get to carry out; maybe he was pondering why his efforts to fight the adulteration of tobacco or to found a Royal Commission on Agriculture had fallen short; or odds on, he was picturing his beautiful and intellectually stimulating wife and collaborator in the laboratory , Marie-Anne, who had steadfastly defended him to the last against the Jacobian steamroller. Lavoisier had the misfortune of being on the wrong side of a revolution that became highly radicalized after the Reign of Terror. Given the opportunity, he could have proffered so much more for the field that fueled both his passion and his marriage.
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Notes
- 1.
David himself was connected to Robespierre and the Jacobins, but his renown as an artist allowed him to escape both the Terror and the subsequent Thermidorian Reaction (July 1794) which spelled the end of Jacobian rule. Lavoisier was killed just a month before (8 May 1794).
- 2.
We must tread carefully here as the use of apothecary and pharmacist are used interchangeably in the secondary literature. The two terms really do not refer to the same knowledge base. An apothecary was someone who, like a pharmacist would dispense medications after a simple apprenticeship, but would also perform diagnoses. Depending on the historical timeframe, the terms began to merge with different regions adopting them at various points. The situation became even more complex with the introduction of the term “chemist,” which was, at least beginning in the early nineteenth century, also used to describe those that practiced university-trained pharmacology.
- 3.
Materia medica is Latin term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used in healing. Used from the 1st Century from Greece and Rome, but by the twentieth century it has now been replaced by the term pharmacology.
- 4.
Citric acid (1774), sour glucic acid (1778), and malic acid (1785) are examples of this explosion in new chemical discoveries.
- 5.
Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner (1793–1841) was born into a family with deep local connections in Paderborn, which is north of Frankfurt, Germany. After his success with morphine he owned pharmacies, founded a journal, authored monographs, and worked on many other chemical projects, including the search for a cure for cholera. After receiving many accolades, he died of gout in February 1841.
- 6.
During the height of the Reformation, as mentioned, opium was supposedly reintroduced into European medical literature by Paracelsus (1493–1541). The historical issues concerning him abound. Many sources repeat fallacies about his contributions. What we do know is that he was the first to use tincture of opium (an alcohol extract of opium), but it is doubtful that he “rediscovered” opium. In terms of Paracelsus himself, his actual name was Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenheim and he is more properly either German, or Swiss-German, not Swiss (which is another inaccuracy), as his birthplace of Zurich, which was part of the old Holy Roman Empire at that time. He was definitely an alchemist and practiced medicine, although it is still debated if he actually had any medical degrees. He studied with astrologers, but he himself was not a practicing astrologer. In 1522, he was most certainly not a “traveling doctor”, but an army surgeon and did not start practicing medicine until a few years later. At that time surgeons were not doctors, but medical craftsmen, that cut where the doctors instructed. The authors want to thank Seth Rasmussen for his insight into this subject.
- 7.
It should be noted that after a second dose, the dog stumbled and became drowsy enough to induce sleep. Sertürner was able to revive the animal with a weak acetic acid. This substance was an alkaline.
- 8.
Napoleon was Master of Europe, but his Continental System was an utter failure. While it did limit British manufacturing, it only in the end hurt French industry. Other seaborne empires suffered under it, like the Dutch, but central Germanic States like Sertürner’s did until Napoleon’s defeat at Leipzig, benefit from the embargo. This created chaos and legal suits (including for Sertürner because he ended up losing that second pharmacy) that jeopardized their businesses well after the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815.
- 9.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) along with his colleague, Pierre-Jean Robiquet (1780–1840), made a formidable pair of French chemists (although Gay-Lussac was also a physicist). Gay-Lussac formulated what became known as Gay-Lussac’s Law , which stated that if the mass and volume of a gas are held constant, then the gas pressure increases linearly as the temperature rises. Robiquet laid the foundation through his work for identifying amino acids, the fundamental building blocks of proteins. He did this through recognizing the first of them, asparagine, in 1806. Then using the industry’s adoption of dyes, he uncovered alizarin in 1826. Capping quite a career, he advanced modern medicine with the identification of codeine in 1832, a drug of widespread use with analgesic and antidiarrheal properties (which will be discussed in Chap. 4).
- 10.
Gay-Lussac saw immediately the value of Sertürner’s research because he immediately ordered a French translation in 1817. This reminds us of the important service provided by Madame Anne-Marie Lavoisier when she accurately translated her husband’s work before his untimely death in 1794.
- 11.
Montyon Prizes (Prix Montyon) are a series of prizes awarded annually by the French Academy of Sciences and the Académie française. They were endowed by the French benefactor Baron de Montyon. It should be noted that Sertürner did receive honors from Germanic sources. He received a doctorate of philosophy from the University of Jena from none other than Goethe for his work on morphine.
- 12.
François Magendie (1783–1855) was a French physiologist who in 1816 published his Précis élementaire de Physiologie, which described an experiment first outlining the concept of empty calories. He said, “I took a dog of three years old, fat, and in good health, and put it to feed upon sugar alone…It expired the 32nd day of the experiment.” Magendie is also known for his rivalry with the English scientist Sir Charles Bell over who discovered the differentiation between sensory and motor nerves in the spinal cord. His treatment of animals in experiments also drew the ire of many, especially in Britain.
- 13.
The pharmacy today is still part of Merck KGaA, but the original building was destroyed during the Second World War in the Allied bombing campaigns. It has since been rebuilt. Merck did not stop at pharmaceuticals; rather he diversified in 1838 by running a candle factory. He also became a leading citizen as a member of the town council of Darmstadt, and his family had deep connections to intellectuals like Goethe. And, if that was not enough, he served as a court consultant and worked on the well-known homicide case of the Mistress of Görlitz in 1850.
- 14.
If you read most articles in print culture in 2017 most of them from The Atlantic, New Yorker, New York Times, and pretty much any other publication all place this crisis within the past 40 years.
- 15.
With the United States on the road to disunion in the 1850s, Bache would need to act quickly to peddle his idea of a national academy that would be devoted to science. To be sure there were a few examples of local and national organizations devoted to geology or the arts and sciences, but few were more than clubs in Bache’s eyes. These entities were not concerned about serious scientific research nor were they focused on peer reviews, laboratory results, and international collaboration with other Western countries, like France, England, and the Germanic states, which were setting the standards for scientific inquiry. Bache watched as America plunged itself into regional battles over slavery and sectionalism. He began to gather a cadre of like-minded scientists to his cause, and cleverly dubbed them the Lazzaroni, after a group of beggars in Naples, Italy that sought shelter in a local hospital named St. Lazarus. As professional scientists, the Lazzaroni became the first scientific lobby group in Washington D.C. Made up of professionals they included physical scientists, who were close to Bache and his survey work, but they also included several others from disciplines like chemistry and biology. Wanting to develop an educational hub for science they spoke in meetings, published proceedings, and chased Congressmen down halls to sell the idea of a national academy. They found willing listeners since states were beginning to discuss the building of new universities and centers for learning, which in turn would feather their own nests if federal funding for these entities were secured. Bache was adamant that a national clearinghouse be established because the Lazzaroni could govern by setting standards in the field, which in turn would eject those that did not conform to the latest and best practices. He was ruthless and quite unbending in this regard about what the country needed. Privately, he approached both Northern and Southern Congressmen by lobbying for science as a tool for defense and to build a powerful university system [21].
- 16.
The soldier’s disease phrase is oft-used in the story of morphine. We do not mean to disparage it, but there is little quantifiable evidence to discern how morphine was distributed during the War and how many continued to use afterwards. Based on David Courtwright’s work, this was a hidden epidemic. See footnote 13 for further commentary [28].
- 17.
There is no evidence to support the fact that Pinkham used opiates, but it should be mentioned that other nostrums did.
- 18.
It should be noted that the Chinese Emperor Yung Cheng prohibited the smoking of opium and its domestic sale (except by obtaining a license) as early as 1729. After the death of the powerful Qianlong Emperor, most nineteenth century rulers in China were unable to enforce the ban, despite the best efforts of their government officials (an example would be Lin Zexu ).
- 19.
Individual patent medicines rose and fell in popularity over the course of the nineteenth century. The term quack was first applied during the Middle Ages to those that sold or hawked their wares by shouting or quacking in a loud voice on the street. Later, quacks were thought to be those that pretended to possess medical skills. Questionable diagnoses and claims of relief were all part of the quack patent medicines. In America, labels used all kinds of words or phrases to entice those that were suffering. Descriptions included: wonder worker, wizard, snake oil, nerve syrup, and sometimes were endorsed by both real and pretend doctors. The thought, from a marketing standpoint, was that this would lend creditability to the product, and snooker customers into thinking they were taking a quality product; the forerunner to the modern notion of a prescription. Once drug stores became more prevalent and started to serve meals at counters, many types of patent medicine companies began to convert to making what we know today as soft drinks. Examples include, Dr. Pepper, Coca-Cola, and others that became known as sodas, due to their carbonation, and were served in retail shops from fountains that in the future served ice cream. For two excellent collections that contain a host of patent medications include the Hagley Museum and Library in Wilmington, Delaware, https://www.hagley.org/research/digital-exhibits/patent-medicine, and the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington D.C. http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object-groups/balm-of-america-patent-medicine-collection [25, 27].
- 20.
Americans had attempted all sorts of opium importations schemes since the founding of the Republic. In fact, New Englanders in 1840 brought in roughly 24,000 lb of the stuff, which caught the attention of the United States Customs Bureau. They promptly placed a duty on the imports in order to attempt to curtail future shipments into the country. Later, Harper’s Magazine actively covered the post-civil War opiate usage after 1865. Authors, including Horace B. Day who ghost wrote the Harper published, The Opium Habit: With Suggestions as to a Remedy (1868) went through numerous printings even after his death in 1870. His book added perspective by weighing in on how to cope with addictions. Most works just wanted to relate experiences that sold sensation rather than offering solutions to a major problem like addiction [36].
- 21.
It is difficult to ascertain how many people suffered under the yoke of opiate addiction since records were not kept with much accuracy and the term was not used until the twentieth century. The term habitué was used frequently to describe the habits of those that hooked. Again, for a fabulous regional study see [28]. What we do know is that states across America, especially out West were aggressive in their action against them. In 1872, California passed the first anti-opium measure, which held that “the administration of laudanum, an opium preparation, or any other narcotic to any person with the intent thereby to facilitate the commission of a felony.” However, this initial attempt failed to control unlawful use of opium in the state. Connecticut, in 1874, became the first state whereby the “narcotic addict” was declared incompetent to attend to their own affairs. The law required that he be committed to a state insane asylum for “medical care and treatment” until he was “cured” of his “addiction.” In 1881, the California legislature passed a law making it a misdemeanor to maintain a place where opium was sold, given away, or smoked. Only applying to commercial places, the law targeted the opium dens frequented by immigrant Chinese laborers. Smoking opium alone in a residence was not covered by the legislation. In the same year, California became the first state to construct a separate bureau to enforce narcotic laws, and one of the first states to treat addicts. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the western states continued to pass legislation restricting use of opium. Nevada’s 1877 law was the first actually to prohibit opium smoking; this made it illegal to sell or dispense opium without a physician’s prescription, and prohibited the maintenance of any place used for smoking or otherwise “illegally using” opium. Other western states soon had similar laws, with most legislation directed at outlawing opium smoking, rather than stopping use of other substances.
- 22.
By the nineteenth century, Sydenham’s Laudanum (named after physician Thomas Sydenham, 1624–1689) was one of the longest running opiate compounds; which in some forms included sherry wine and a mixture of herbs. In 1676 Sydenham published his seminal work, Medical Observations Concerning the History and Cure of Acute Diseases in which he outlined the first early modern opium tincture. As mentioned, opium grew in several strategic locations throughout the Eurasian landmass. Silk roads and waterways dispensed it throughout the world, thus making it a truly international commodity. Interestingly enough, by most accounts it was the West of all places that abused opium and its derivatives [37].
- 23.
Dr. Alvin Wood Chase was originally from Cayuga, New York, and after attending medical school he established himself as a major force in self-help and in the dispensing of medical advice. He died in 1883 after a long life that was devoted to patients he never met in person.
- 24.
The term snake oil was a brand of nostrum, but it also became a moniker associated with products that made all kinds of fanciful claims. Thus, nostrums were dystopian because they heavily drugged their patients, thus providing only temporary relief from pain.
- 25.
William H. Chandler (1841–1906) was a professor, chairman, librarian, and acting president of Lehigh University. The building designed by Hutton is still in use today, but the Department of Chemistry has moved to another location on campus. The chimney-lined roof still forms a striking silhouette in the center of campus.
- 26.
Addison Hutton (1834–1916) was Quaker and a Philadelphia architect who was one of the principal designers of a wide-range of different building-types in Pennsylvania.
- 27.
Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) was the son of a pharmaceutical and chemical dealer. He was apprenticed to an apothecary, which, as discussed earlier, was before 1820 were loosely linked to the study of chemistry. Dissatisfied under this tutelage he moved to Paris to study under the chemist, Joseph Gay-Lussac. With the help of Alexander von Humboldt he joined the faculty at the University of Giessen, where he remained until he received the chair in chemistry at the University of Munich in 1852.
- 28.
Material Culture is an interdisciplinary approach that engages object-based analysis. The work of historians, curators, architectural historians, and those interested in how objects can tell important stories about the past have changed the way we look at subjects like the history of science. For an excellent appraisal of the field, see [49].
- 29.
The particular stove in the center-right portion of the rendering not only heats, but includes festoons and swag patterns which were reminiscent of the Neoclassical Style of the late eighteenth century. Empire elements are slowly being incorporated into the rest of the space, such as the size of the windows and their ornamentation in utilizing Corinthian column blocks (Fig. 2.15).
- 30.
Interestingly enough, historians often fall short in relating how by the turn of the century extracts were perceived as inefficient sources of protein, especially since the use of refrigeration was on the rise.
- 31.
Several popular histories of opium and opiates mention Bismarck as a habitual user of morphine. This particular type of scholarship spends the bulk of its time mentioning famous people from history that abused alkaloids. One reason for this might be taking an opportunity to make those from the past seem more human and flawed, anti-hagiography.
- 32.
Several scholars have argued that Bayer was an anomaly when it came to their production capabilities. While we consider this an important point, there were plenty of firms that worked towards solving a myriad of pharmacological issues of the day. Although, Duisberg’s dream of a chemical conglomerate was not realized until the founding of IG Farben after the First World War, these firms still commanded an economic and political niche which was unparalleled even among the other industries of Germany.
- 33.
Carl Duisberg (1861–1935) grasped the mission that Friedrich Bayer envisioned. Like most Prussians, who took part in university training (he graduated with a doctorate from the University of Jena) and in military service, Duisberg combined savvy business sense (his first job at Bayer was as a dye consultant) with chemistry to be the organizing force behind Bayer at the turn-of-the-century. After taking a trip to America, he was greatly influenced by the design of vertical integration (two or more stages of production under one company) when he toured Standard Oil. For over four decades he presided over Bayer until it was assumed into the conglomerate I. G. Farben in the 1930s. For a thorough treatment of Duisberg’s career see the article, [60].
- 34.
August Laubenheimer (1848–1904) studied chemistry in Giessen. He worked as an assistant and lecturer at the Chemical Institute of the University of Giessen and in 1876 attained the rank of associate professor. Later, he helped put Farbwerke Höchst on the map, by serving as a director and as a board member. During that tenure he wooed the future Nobel Laureate, Emil von Behring, to come and work for the company. By 1894, production began on a serum that could cure diphtheria and it was mass-produced as 75,000 vials netted over 700,000 marks in profit. Buried in the Old Cemetery in Giessen he was survived by son, the bacteriologist, Kurt Laubenheimer [61].
- 35.
Heinrich Dreser (1860–1924) was born in Darmstadt, in the Valley of the Chemicals, also known as Merck’s hometown. He was the son of a physics professor and received a doctorate from Heidelberg University before becoming a professor at Bonn University in 1893. He was known as one of the first directors of a major pharmaceutical firm to use animals on an industrial scale.
- 36.
The discovery of ASA was attributed to Hoffmann, but others within Bayer’s ranks also claimed that they were the ones who uncovered it. The debate was not settled until the second half of the twentieth century when Hoffmann’s name was finally attributed to his seminal work.
- 37.
For a chemical and historical survey of the history of aspirin see [63].
- 38.
The symbol of the lion and globe was adopted later by the well-known brand of Burmese heroin called Double Globe, which coincidently has a similar package.
- 39.
Dreser remarried after the death of his first wife during the First World War. Historians have suspected that instead of taking an aspirin each day, which he was integral in marketing as well, he took heroin. This period is where the term junkie was coined after some who collects metal for sale in order to support a heroin addiction.
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Campbell, J.N., Rooney, S.M. (2018). Part One: Alkaloid Heterotopias. In: A Time-Release History of the Opioid Epidemic. SpringerBriefs in Molecular Science(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91788-7_2
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