Abstract
In this chapter, Musgrove and Michell examine the philosophical and ideological motivations for implementing foster care as the core method of providing for children within Australian child welfare systems from around the 1870s, arguing for the importance of understanding this period in a transnational context. The chapter goes on to show how welfare authorities’ assessments of families as ‘deserving’ or ‘undeserving’ could determine whether or not parents were separated from their children, and demonstrates that assessments of character profoundly shaped people’s journeys through the system well into the twentieth century. The chapter extends this discussion of ‘character’ to its consequence: stigma. In discussing stigma, the chapter exposes the way child welfare systems criminalised and stigmatised children, demonstrating the huge toll this took on people’s lives.
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Notes
- 1.
Margaret Barbalet, Far from a Low Gutter Girl: The Forgotten World of State Wards: South Australia 1887–1940 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1983); Nell Musgrove, The Scars Remain: A Long History of Forgotten Australians and Children’s Institutions (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2013); and Naomi Parry, “‘Such a Longing’: Black and White Children in Welfare in New South Wales and Tasmania, 1880–1940” (PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales, 2007).
- 2.
Freda Briggs and Susan Hunt, “Foster Care from a Historical Perspective,” Children Australia 40, no. 4 (2015): 316–26.
- 3.
Shurlee Swain and Margot Hillel, Child, Nation, Race and Empire: Child Resuce Discourse, England, Canada and Australia, 1850–1915 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010); Elizabeth Harvey, “‘Layered Networks’: Imperial Philanthropy in Birmingha, and Sydney, 1860–1914,” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwelath History 41, no. 1 (2013): 120–42.
- 4.
“Untitled,” Argus (Melbourne), 14 June 1870, 4.
- 5.
Chaplin wrote about his time in Hanwell in My Autobiography, published in 1964. He describes his time there as a “forlorn existence” and writes in detail about the brutal military style punishment meted out to boys when they committed “offences”. Chaplin says he survived the experience by making himself invulnerable, daydreaming about becoming a great actor, and developing enormous confidence in himself. Far from an endorsement of such institutions as good models of care, Chaplin’s case is presented to highlight the importance of reading reformers’ claims critically. See: Charles Chaplin, My Autobiography (London: The Bodley Head, 1964), 22–23. Biographer Peter Ackroyd says that the invulnerability Chaplin cultivated as a small child later became part of his well-loved Little Tramp character. See: Peter Ackroyd, Charlie Chaplin (London: Chatto & Windus, 2014), 11.
- 6.
Lynn Abrams , The Orphan Country: Children of Scotland’s Broken Homes from 1845 to the Present Day (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1998), 37.
- 7.
See the introduction to this book for further detail on Clark’s role in establishing foster care in South Australia .
- 8.
“Making Good Citizens: Rival Systems, the Inter-state Congress,” Advertiser (Adelaide), 20 May 1909, 9.
- 9.
Shurlee Swain , “Florence and Rosamond Davenport Hill and the Development of Boarding Out in England and Australia: A Study in Cultural Transmission,” Women’s History Review 23, no. 5 (2014): 744–59.
- 10.
New South Wales and Queensland also made moves to incorporate boarding out to their government provisions during the 1870s.
- 11.
Rosamond Hill and Florence Hill, What We Saw in Australia (Digitsed by the Internet Archive in 2007 with Funding from Microsoft Corporation: http://www.archive.org/details/whatwesawinaustr00hilliala, 1875).
- 12.
Swain, “Florence and Rosamond Davenport Hill and the Development of Boarding out in England and Australia,” 744–59.
- 13.
This is taken up by Florence Hill in: Children of the State: The Training of Juvenile Paupers (London: Macmillan and Co., 1868); and again by the sisters in What We Saw in Australia.
- 14.
For discussion of fears about moral contamination of girls in institutions and the perceived value of boarding out in Australia see: Musgrove, The Scars Remain, 33–34. For discussions of concerns regarding the moral contamination of children in workhouses and about lifelong pauperisation of children in Poor law institutions see: George Behlmer, Friends of the Family: The English Home and Its Guardians, 1850–1940 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 285; Alan Kidd, State, Society and the Poor in Nineteenth Century England (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), 42–44.
- 15.
Hill and Hill, What We Saw in Australia, 307–8.
- 16.
Ibid., 88–90.
- 17.
“Untitled,” Argus (Melbourne), 14 June 1870, 4.
- 18.
“Boarding-Out of Orphans,” Argus (Melbourne), 28 July 1876, 7.
- 19.
“The Boarding-Out System in Victoria,” South Australian Register (Adelaide), 4 February 1873, 4.
- 20.
This notion is omnipresent in Australian colonial sources, and George Behlmer has notes similar observations about foster care in nineteenth-century England . See: Behlmer, Friends of the Family, 286. Quotation is from: “The Boarding-Out System in Victoria,” South Australian Register (Adelaide), 4 February 1873, 4.
- 21.
“The Orphan Asylum,” Argus (Melbourne), 7 September 1855, 5.
- 22.
Edwin Exon, “The Boarding Out of the Orphans,” Argus (Melbourne), 31 August 1876, 6.
- 23.
Henry Fawcett, Pauperism: Its Causes and Remedies (London and New York: Macmillan and Co., 1871), 79.
- 24.
Ibid., 81–84.
- 25.
Hill, Children of the State, 160.
- 26.
Florence Hill, “State Children: To the Editor,” Adelaide Observer (Adelaide), 13 February 1886, 14.
- 27.
Hill, Children of the State, 180.
- 28.
Musgrove, The Scars Remain, 13–15.
- 29.
For further discussion see Chapter 5: They’re Just Doing It for the Money.
- 30.
Chapter 5: They’re Just Doing It for the Money.
- 31.
VPRS 3991, Unit 1327, 82/5597.
- 32.
John Barnes, “James, John Stanley (1843–1896),” Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/james-john-stanley-3848/text6113, accessed 24 March 2010.
- 33.
A. Vagabond, “Boarding Out in Practice,” Argus (Melbourne), 25 November 1876, 4.
- 34.
Shurlee Swain , “‘I Am Directed to Remind You of Your Duty to Your Family’: Public Surveillance of Mothering in Victoria, Australia, 1920–40,” Women’s History Review 8, no. 2 (1999): 247–59.
- 35.
A. Vagabond, “Boarding Out in Practice,” Argus (Melbourne), 25 November 1876, 4.
- 36.
A. Vagabond, “Boarding Out in Practice,” Argus (Melbourne), 25 November 1876, 4.
- 37.
For an example which provides some insight into this aspect of the work, see the interactions between the lady correspondent Miss Madden and foster mother Mrs. Rout in Chapter 2: Did Anybody Care? The Death of John Wood Pledger .
- 38.
A. Vagabond, “Boarding Out in Practice,” Argus (Melbourne), 25 November 1876, 4.
- 39.
Eileen Janes Yeo, The Contest for Social Science: Relations and Representations of Gender and Class (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1996).
- 40.
Mary E. Mayo, “A Suggestion with Regard to the Training of Pauper Children,” Reprinted from the Guardian 1878, Our Waifs and Strays, October 1883, 3.
- 41.
Ibid.
- 42.
The early Victorian industrial schools , for example, allowed relatives to visit children under the supervision of staff on the first Monday of each month. See: VPRS 3991, Unit 33, 64/10060.
- 43.
Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 19 August 1875, 1056–57.
- 44.
Industrial and Reformatory Schools Office, Victoria. Industrial and Reformatory Schools Department: Report of the Inspector, 1874, 4.
- 45.
Victoria, Industrial and Reformatory Schools Department. Industrial and Reformatory Schools Department: Report of the Inspector, 1875, 4.
- 46.
Industrial and Reformatory Schools Department: Report of the Inspector, 1875, 4.
- 47.
For further discussion of the consequences of separating families from each other through foster care, see Chapter 3: Making and Breaking Families.
- 48.
Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700–1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
- 49.
For further detail on the particularities of each colony see: Musgrove, The Scars Remain, 1–15.
- 50.
VPRS 4527, Unit 27, 131–33.
- 51.
Chapter 3: Making and Breaking Families.
- 52.
VPRS 3991, Unit 1327, 82/5806.
- 53.
VPRS 4527, Unit 27, 131.
- 54.
For further discussion see Chapter 3: Making and Breaking Families.
- 55.
VPRS 3991, Unit 1319, 82/964.
- 56.
VPRS3991, Unit 1319, 82/964.
- 57.
For more on Guillaume ’s innovation to keep babies alive by placing some young single mothers in foster homes with their own children, see Chapter 3: Making and Breaking Families.
- 58.
VPRS 3992, Unit 21, 84/4070.
- 59.
VPRS 3992, Unit 21, 84/4070.
- 60.
VPRS 3992, Unit 17, 84/3212.
- 61.
VPRS 3992, Unit 28, 84/5496.
- 62.
VPRS 3992, Unit 531, 94/889.
- 63.
VPRS 3992, Unit 513, 93/5054.
- 64.
VPRS 3992, Unit 531, 94/889.
- 65.
VPRS 3992, Unit 576, 95/2323.
- 66.
VPRS 3992, Unit 614, 96/5158.
- 67.
VPRS 3992, Unit 614, 96/5158.
- 68.
The New South Wales scheme actually paid a slightly lower rate to mothers for their own children than was paid to foster mothers . See: Anne O’Brien, Poverty’s Prison: The Poor in New South Wales 1880–1918 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1988).
- 69.
Department for Neglected Children and Reformatory Schools, Victoria. Department for Neglected Children and Reformatory Schools: Report of the Secretary and Inspector, 1898, 4.
- 70.
Department for Neglected Children and Reformatory Schools, Victoria. Department for Neglected Children and Reformatory Schools: Reports of the Secretary and Inspector 1896–1913.
- 71.
VPRS 3992, Unit 1484, 19/4648.
- 72.
Marilyn Lake has developed this argument in numerous publications. For a recent example see: Marilyn Lake, “State Socialism for Australian Mothers: Andrew Fisher’s Radical Maternalism in Its International and Local Contexts,” Labour History, no. 102 (2012): 102–56.
- 73.
Children’s Welfare Department, Victoria, Children’s Welfare Department and Reformatory Schools: Reports of the Secretary and Inspector, 1925–60.
- 74.
Harry Ferguson , “Abused and Looked After Children as ‘Moral Dirt’: Child Abuse and Institutional Care in Historical Perspective,” Journal of Social Policy 36, no. 1 (2007): 123–39.
- 75.
Ki Meekins, Red Tape Rape: The Story of Ki Meekins (Adelaide, 2008), 5; Stephanie Anderson, “Children Charged with Needing Protection Call for Apology,” ABC News, 13 February 2018, 2017; Deidre Michell, “Two Mothers—Twice the Blessing or Was I Cursed?” Women-Church 31 (Spring 2002): 11; and Miki Perkins, “Criminal Records That Branded Children and Babies as Criminals to Be Expunged,” The Age, 2017.
- 76.
Musgrove, The Scars Remain.
- 77.
Act for the Relief of Destitute Children 1866, New South Wales.
- 78.
Gladys Scrivener, “Parental Imposition or Police Coercion? The Role of Parents and Police in Committals to the Industrial Schools in New South Wales, 1867–1905,” Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 86, no. 1 (2000): 25–26.
- 79.
For example, the Western Australian Child Welfare Act 1947, which was not repealed until 2006, authorised police and departmental officers to apprehend any child under the control of the department who “runs away from any Departmental facility or other centre or facility, from a foster parent or from any situation in which he has been placed at the requirement of the Director-General.”
- 80.
E. P. Mullighan, “Children in State Care Commission of Inquiry. Allegations of Sexual Abuse and Death from Criminal Conduct” (Adelaide, SA2008), 460. (Hereafter cited as “Mullighan Inquiry”.)
- 81.
Act to Amend the Law Relating to State Children, and for Other Purposes 1895, South Australia.
- 82.
“Mullighan Inquiry,” 460.
- 83.
See, for example, Margaret Nyland, “The Life They Deserve: Child Protection Systems Royal Commission Report” (Adelaide, SA: Child Protection Systems Royal Commission, 2016), 317, 327.
- 84.
Barbalet, Far from a Low Gutter Girl, 159.
- 85.
Germaine Greer, Daddy, We Hardly Knew You (London: Penguin, 1999).
- 86.
Sheridan Palmer, Hegel’s Owl: The Life of Bernard Smith (Sydney: Power Publications, 2016), 16.
- 87.
Bernard Smith, The Boy Adeodatus (Ringwood, VIC: Penguin, 1984), 132.
- 88.
Ibid., 134–35.
- 89.
Walter Jacobsen, Dussa and the Maiden’s Prayer (Melbourne: The Law Printer, 1994), 14–15, 20–21.
- 90.
On the concept of social ‘blemish’ and individual responses to this kind of stigma see: Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1963), 1–2, 9.
- 91.
Palmer, Hegel’s Owl: The Life of Bernard Smith, 20–21, 75.
- 92.
Jacobsen, Dussa and the Maiden’s Prayer, 96–97, 117, 251.
- 93.
Greer, Daddy, We Hardly Knew You, 296.
- 94.
Rosalie Fraser, Shadow Child: A Memoir of the Stolen Generation (Alexandria, NSW: Hale & Iremonger Pty Ltd, 1998), 15–16, 267.
- 95.
Donna Meehan, It Is No Secret (Milsons Point, NSW: Random House, 2000), 49, 54.
- 96.
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home: National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families” (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1997).
- 97.
Jan Owen, Every Childhood Lasts a Lifetime: Personal Stories from the Frontline of Family Breakdown (Brisbane, QLD: Australian Association of Young People in Care, 1996), 64–65, 68.
- 98.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge” (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2005), 97.
- 99.
Alice Miller, The Truth Will Set You Free (New York, NY: Basic Books, 2001), 96; Meekins, Red Tape Rape: The Story of Ki Meekins, 29–33.
- 100.
- 101.
Owen, Every Childhood Lasts a Lifetime, 6.
- 102.
Ibid., 21, 30. For more on the conflation of poverty with low intelligence, see Crystal Brothe, “You Ain’t Never Gonna Be Better Than Me,” in Those Winter Sundays: Female Academics and Their Working Class Parents, ed. K. Welsch (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2005).
- 103.
Chapter 4: Remembering and Forgetting Foster Care.
- 104.
Owen, Every Childhood Lasts a Lifetime, 40, 124.
- 105.
Chapter 4: Remembering and Forgetting Foster Care.
- 106.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Jannelle,” 2015.
- 107.
Ibid.
- 108.
Dee Michell and Claudine Scalzi, “I Want to Be Someone, I Want to Make a Difference: Young Care Leavers Preparing for the Future in South Australia,” in Young People Transitioning from Out-of-Home Car, ed. Philip Mendes and Pamela Snow (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
- 109.
Chapter 4: Remembering and Forgetting Foster Care.
- 110.
Woor-Dungin Criminal Record Discrimination Project Interviews, “Uncle Larry Walsh,” http://www.woor-dungin.com.au/crdp-interviews-uncle-larry-walsh/, last accessed 19 March 2018.
- 111.
See the introduction to this book.
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Musgrove, N., Michell, D. (2018). Foster Care—Philosophies, Rhetoric and Practices. In: The Slow Evolution of Foster Care in Australia. Palgrave Studies in the History of Childhood. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93900-1_6
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