Abstract
In this opening chapter, Crowther outlines the historical perception of nature as positively transformative in Scotland. She provides an overview of nature and wellbeing research to date in the UK whilst questioning current popular methodologies for understanding these ephemeral and intangible experiences. This chapter concludes that to understand human experiences in nature, we must adopt qualitative methods that can tackle the experiential and phenomenological. This chapter introduces the research questions and establishes the book’s flow. Crowther situates nature as an experiential term and introduces liminality as an overarching theme. She also asks the questions, do we instrumentalise wellbeing in pro-environmental endeavours, and is this helpful to understanding the positive benefits of nature engagement? This chapter sets up a framework for understanding the nature experience that encompasses sociality, place, and the self.
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Notes
- 1.
The Scottish Outdoors Access Code (2005: 10).
- 2.
- 3.
Transcendentalists appreciated the innate goodness of nature and its relation to human nature.
- 4.
- 5.
See Trevor-Roper (2014). The mythical bard, Ossian, represented these landscapes as wild and dramatic. Also, see Olwig (2002) who discusses the sublime and it being ‘the semblance of a nostalgic return to nature’ and Ossian as the voice of ‘a raw and wild nature […] unmediated by culture’ (Ibid: 162). In thoughts on the sublime the landscape was met with intangible awe and veneration.
- 6.
- 7.
See Brown (2001).
- 8.
Within the literature of Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott alongside the likes Of Coleridge and Wordsworth in England.
- 9.
Shepherd (1977/2011).
- 10.
The Living Mountain is a celebration of the human spirit amongst ‘nature’ alongside the mountain landscape in the (now) Cairngorms National Park.
- 11.
See also Nan Shepherd (2014) In the Cairngorms.
- 12.
- 13.
Amy Liptrot (2015).
- 14.
Kathleen Jamie (2015).
- 15.
For more on literature/folklore and the landscape, see Dorson (1968): literature throughout history arguably now seeps into the readings of the landscape as it is now; an amalgamation of industrialisation, romanticism, mysticism, nostalgia, and misrepresentation. In Scottish folk memory, there is a palpable affinity or empathy with the landscape. See Burns (2017) for popular examples right through to many more modern works from Cambridge (1999/2008), and many more at The Scottish Poetry Library (2017). See also Crumley (2000, 2003, 2007), Macfarlane (2007), and MacCaskil (1999), and for more on representation of Scotland in film, see Fowler and Helfield (2006). Again, just a small selection.
- 16.
Additionally, there are certainly traditions of ‘placelore’ within the Scottish traveller community. According to Reith, these ‘interaction[s] with oral traditions [and] memories function on many experiential levels to build creativity’ (Reith 2008: 77). With Scottish travelling peoples maintaining the ‘richest oral culture in Europe,’ they often utilised ‘narratives that tie[d] together geography and metaphor to recover ancestral memory’ (Ibid: 81). A heritage that held a ‘holistic view of the landscape’ (Ibid: 82): natural, material, ancestral, ethereal, eternal, spiritual.
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
The number of people working on the land in agriculture, forestry, and the fishing sector, for example, has declined significantly due to the growth of industry post the Industrial Revolution. Clearly now in Scotland, there are more machines engaged in land work than people.
- 20.
Rambling refers to the act of walking in the countryside for pleasure, in groups normally. Of course, it may also conjure images of simply wandering from place to place.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
Olwig (2002).
- 24.
Olwig (Ibid: xxvii).
- 25.
- 26.
The Right to Roam/ Freedom to roam, officially known as The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003: ‘Part 1 of the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 gives everyone statutory access rights to most land and inland water. People only have these rights if they exercise them responsibly by respecting people’s privacy, safety and livelihoods, and Scotland’s environment’ (Scottish Outdoors Access Code 2005: 10).
- 27.
Scottish Natural Heritage Organisation in Vergunst (2013: 124).
- 28.
Scottish Outdoors Access Code (2005).
- 29.
The basic rules or ‘The Code’ … ‘Exercising access rights responsibly […] take responsibility for your own actions […] respect people’s privacy […] help land managers and others to work safely and effectively […] care for your environment […] keep your dog under control […] take extra care if you are organising a group […]’ (Scottish Outdoors Access Code 2005: 05) as well as ‘Respect the interests of other people […]’ (Ibid: 12).
- 30.
Ramblers: at the heart of walking (2017).
- 31.
Gov.uk (2017).
- 32.
Vergunst (2013: 121).
- 33.
Wong (2007: 43) emphasis my own.
- 34.
Vergunst (2013).
- 35.
Nadel Klein in Vergunst (2013: 126).
- 36.
Vergunst (2013: 127).
- 37.
Vergunst (Ibid: 125).
- 38.
The journeys to new spaces and the experience of this, were vital in attending my research agenda. This was not necessarily ‘multi-sited ethnography’ as defined by Marcus (1995): where ethnographies are seen to be ‘cross cut[ting] dichotomies such as the “local” and the “global,” the “lifeworld” and the “system” [… and are] both in and out of the world system’ (Ibid: 95). This research does however sway considerably from the traditional single site field location as Marcus suggests, having not only multiple locations but multiple case study groups. This ethnography did indeed engage with multiple sites across Scotland. It is, therefore, multi-sited in the sense that the research sites were plural. They did however remain within a geographically limited area, and in some regards ‘local.’
- 39.
Belk (1988).
- 40.
- 41.
Brook (2010: 298).
- 42.
in Brook (2010: 298).
- 43.
Brook (2010: 298).
- 44.
see Lokhorst et al. (2014).
- 45.
Conradson (2005).
- 46.
Capaldi et al. (2015).
- 47.
Cronon, in Mackenzie (2013: 27).
- 48.
Mackenzie (2013: 26).
- 49.
Mackenzie (2013: 28).
- 50.
Braun in Mackenzie (2013: 28).
- 51.
Mackenzie (2013: 26).
- 52.
Kats in Mackenzie (2013: 27).
- 53.
Mackenzie (2013).
- 54.
Mackenzie (2013: 27).
- 55.
Mackenzie (2013: 40).
- 56.
See Seligman (2011).
- 57.
See Jimenez (2008), Dolan (2014), Bormans (2012), Zevnik (2014), within social anthropology (see Thin 2005), happiness movements (see the likes of Action for Happiness 2017) and The Network of Wellbeing (2017) by social policy scholars (see Chopel 2012; Frey 2012; Chanfreau et al. 2008) and economists (see Layard 2011; Dluhosch and Horgos 2013; Graham 2012; Kahneman and Krueger 2006); and of course within the remit of subjective wellbeing and positive psychology (for examples of work on Subjective Wellbeing see Diener (1984), Diener et al. (1985), Pavot et al. (1990), Pontin et al. (2013), Tinkler and Hicks (2011), Samman (2007), Kashdan (2004), Hallerod and Seldon (2013), Hills and Argyle (2002), Francis (1998), and the OECD (2013)).
- 58.
Research into the benefits and impact of engagement with ‘natural’ environments on notions of wellbeing, both social and personal as well as physiological has been carried out worldwide, an amount too vast for detail here; however, for a flavour, see work carried out in the United States (Payton et al. 2008), in Japan (see work on Shinrin-Yoku; Park et al. 2011; Morita et al. 2007), in Canada (Howell et al. 2011), and in mainland Europe (see Lopes and Cananho 2013; Hunter 2003; Esposito et al. 2013). This work, though further afield, is still relevant to the positioning of this book.
- 59.
- 60.
Wilson (1984).
- 61.
Kaplan and Kaplan (1989).
- 62.
Ulrich et al. (1991).
- 63.
Hinds and Sparks (2011).
- 64.
Hinds and Sparks (2011: 452).
- 65.
Kellert (2002).
- 66.
Kahn (1997).
- 67.
Hinds and Sparks (2011: 110).
- 68.
Capaldi et al. (2015: 02).
- 69.
Kaplan and Kaplan (1989).
- 70.
in Morris (2003: 13).
- 71.
Kaplan and Kaplan (1989).
- 72.
Kaplan and Kaplin (1989).
- 73.
Groenewegen, van den Berg, de Vries, and Verheij (2006).
- 74.
- 75.
Thompson-Coon et al. (2011).
- 76.
Kaplan and Kaplan (1989).
- 77.
General claims to the benefits of nature on the economy, society, the environment and health and wellbeing are made by Bird (RSPB and 2007) , Hartig et al. (2007), Maas et al. (2006), Ward-Thompson (2007, 2008, 2010, 2011), Ward-Thompson and Travlou (ed. 2007) Morris (2003), Steptoe and Butler (1996) Gordon and Grant (1997), Calfas and Taylor (1994), Burns (1998), Ulrich and Parsons (1992), Gruber (1986) and Freeman (1984).
- 78.
Capaldi et al. (2015: 01).
- 79.
- 80.
- 81.
Ulrich (1983).
- 82.
Hartig et al. (2003).
- 83.
- 84.
- 85.
In relation to physical health, fitness, and physiological benefits, there are many further examples of research, see Bell et al. (2015) and (Brook 2010). For further insights into the body in ‘nature,’ lifestyle, and tourism, see Little (2012, 2015) and for an alternative use of the term wellbeing in terms of physical health. For an extensive early literature review (beginning in the 1970s through to the early 1990s), particularly in relation to physiological benefits, outdoor exercise, and policy and organisational intervention in Scotland, see Morris (2003).
- 86.
This is also something addressed in a number of popular culture non-fiction, memoirs, and autobiographical writing, some of these texts having become award-winning best sellers within the past decade; see Robert MacFarlane, Mountains of the Mind (2003), Landmarks (2016), The Wild Places (2007), and The Old Ways (2013); Helen MacDonald, H is for Hawk (2014); and Amy Liptrot, The Outrun (2015)—McDonald’s text telling the story of recovery from the loss of her father and Liptrot’s text being specifically about returning from London to her childhood home in Orkney and recovering from mental illness and alcoholism. The popularity of texts such as these highlights an increasing awareness within popular culture in Scotland and the UK. Similarly, Richard Mabey, writer and broadcaster, has published several books exploring nature and culture (see Mabey 1980, 2005, 2010).
- 87.
Louv (2005).
- 88.
Generation X: born 1966–1976 and coming of age 1988–1994, Generation Y (millennials): born 1977–1994 and coming of age 1998–2006, and Generation Z (also millennials): born 1995–2012 and coming of age 2013–2020.
- 89.
See also Adams (2009) and Brook (2010) and for a mourning for connection to nature see Capaldi et al. (2015) and Hinds and Sparks (2007). For this concept specifically in relation to children, see Brook (2010), Ward-Thompson (2007, 2008), and in relation to a perceived vulnerability that this leaves us with, see Jordan (2009) and for the perception of a desire for reconnection seen in transformative nature natural tourism, see Little (2012).
- 90.
Capaldi et al. (2015: 02).
- 91.
Capaldi, Dopko, and Zelenski (2014).
- 92.
Ingulli and Lindbloom (2013).
- 93.
Mayer et al. (2009).
- 94.
Selhub and Logan in Capaldi et al. (2015).
- 95.
Tam (2013).
- 96.
Capaldi et al. (2015: 02).
- 97.
Mayer and Frantz (2004).
- 98.
- 99.
Mayer and Frantz (2004).
- 100.
In Kamitsis and Francis (2013).
- 101.
Mayer and Frantz (2004).
- 102.
Nisbet et al. (2011).
- 103.
Zhang et al. (2014).
- 104.
Zhang et al. (2014: 60).
- 105.
Hinds and Sparks (2011: 463).
- 106.
Hinds and Sparks (2011: 463).
- 107.
Hinds and Sparks (2007).
- 108.
in Hinds and Sparks (2011: 455).
- 109.
Hinds and Sparks (2011: 455).
- 110.
Brook (2010).
- 111.
Brook (2010).
- 112.
Brook (2010).
- 113.
Brook (2010: 305).
- 114.
Brook (Ibid.).
- 115.
Brook (Ibid: 299).
- 116.
Brook (Ibid: 58).
- 117.
- 118.
Dubosm in Hinds and Sparks (2011: 453).
- 119.
Brook (2010: 307).
- 120.
Adams (2009).
- 121.
Adams (Ibid: 38).
- 122.
Adams (2009: 38–39).
- 123.
Adams (Ibid).
- 124.
Adams (2009: 47–48).
- 125.
Adams (2009: 43).
- 126.
For studies in connection to pro-environmental care and nature protective behaviour, see Stedman (2002), Hinds and Sparks (2007), Sparks et al. (2014), and Stern et al. (2011). In relation to pro-environmental care, place, and identity, see Devine-wright and Clayton (2010). In relation to self and collective efficacy, see Jugert et al. (2013); to destructive behaviour, see Adams (2009); to emotional affinity and caring behaviours, see Kals et al. (1999); to anthropomorphism and its influence on pro-environmental care, see Tam (2013); to the link between witnessing beauty in nature and pro-environmental care, see Zhang, Howell, and Iyer (2014); a love for nature and pro-environmental care, see Jordan (2009); nature considered as a metaphorical ‘home,’ see Hung (2010); and the environmental benefits of green space as well as green space quality and effects of public health, see Morris (2003).
- 127.
Brook (2010).
- 128.
Brook (Ibid: 309).
- 129.
- 130.
Capaldi et al. (2015).
- 131.
Hinds and Sparks (2007).
- 132.
Also found in empirical studies by Nord, Luloff, and Bridger (1998) and Teisl and O’brien (2003) (in Hinds and Sparks 2007).
- 133.
In relation to environmental connection and identity, see Hinds and Sparks (2007, 2011); in relation to protective behaviours and connection, see Shultz et al. (2004); to health and salutogenic encounter, see Bell et al. (2015); to spirituality and wellbeing, see Kamitsis and Francis (2013); and with regard to the connectedness to nature scale, see Mayer and Frantz (2004). In relation to connectedness to nature and pro-environmental behaviour, see Sparks et al. (2014); to happiness and nature relatedness, see Zelenski and Nisbet (2012), and in relation to public engagement with green space, see Ward-Thompson (2007, 2008, 2010, 2011).
- 134.
Wilson (1984).
- 135.
Abrams and Bron (1989; Ibid: 312).
- 136.
Abrams and Bron (1989).
- 137.
Devine-Wright and Clayton (2010: 267).
- 138.
Devine-Wright and Clayton (2010).
- 139.
See also Carter (2013) who claims that identities are ‘motivational when activated in a social situation’ (Ibid: 205).
- 140.
Devine Wright and Clayton (2010).
- 141.
Devine Wright and Clayton (2010).
- 142.
Proshanky et al. (1983).
- 143.
- 144.
- 145.
Carter (2013).
- 146.
Devine-Wright and Clayton (2010: 205).
- 147.
Carter (2013).
- 148.
Carter (2013: 205).
- 149.
Devine-Wright and Clayton (2010).
- 150.
Abrams and Bron (1989).
- 151.
Abrams and Bron (Ibid: 311).
- 152.
Goldenberg and Saguy (2014).
- 153.
‘The term group-based emotion refers to emotions that are dependent on an individual’s membership in a particular social group and occur in response to events that have perceived relevance for the group as a whole.’ (Goldenberg and Saguy 2014: 581). Additionally, ‘collective emotions differ from group-based emotions, because group-based emotions consider an individual’s emotional experience in response to group related events, whereas collective emotions refer to the collective as the entity that experiences the emotion’ (Goldenberg and Saguy 2014: 582).
- 154.
Goldenberg and Saguy (Ibid: 581).
- 155.
Diener (1984).
- 156.
in Abrams and Bron (1989).
- 157.
Abrams and Bron (Ibid: 311).
- 158.
Abrams and Bron (1989).
- 159.
- 160.
Abrams and Bron (1989).
- 161.
Cerulo (2009: 532).
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Crowther, R. (2019). Introduction: The Phenomenon. In: Wellbeing and Self-Transformation in Natural Landscapes. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97673-0_1
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