Abstract
The findings from evaluations of community-based sustainability and international developmental aid initiatives are generally disappointing. Mitchell reviews the literature and concludes that the findings converge around an instrumental critique, which holds that the monitoring and evaluation frameworks and indicators are inappropriate or inadequate and that project practitioners are ill-equipped to collect, analyse and manage evaluation data, and a design error critique, which suggests that projects deployed to address complex and wicked problems are predicated on a linear design model. Mitchell introduces and discusses the developmental evaluation approach that supports practitioners to draw from their project-based experience to innovate and respond adaptively to complex operating conditions.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
This runs counter to Morton’s argument that ecological thought only begins when we recognise that there is no ‘place’, and that the localisation of ecological concern is a convenience of bounded rationality (Morton 2010). This is considered further with reference to second order cybernetics in Chapter 3.
- 2.
Available at: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/ecological-indicators.
References
Abrahamse, W., Steg, L., Vlek, C., & Rothengatter, T. (2005). A review of intervention studies aimed at household energy conservation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25(3), 273–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.08.002.
Agol, D., Latawiec, A. E., & Strassburg, B. B. N. (2014). Evaluating impacts of development and conservation projects using sustainability indicators: Opportunities and challenges. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 48, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.04.001.
Allen, P. M. (2010). What is the science of complexity? Knowledge of the limits to knowledge. In A. Tait & K. A. Richardson (Eds.), Complexity and knowledge management: Understanding the role of knowledge in the management of social networks (pp. 3–22). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishers.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Arvesen, A., Bright, R. M., & Hertwich, E. G. (2011). Considering only first-order effects? How simplifications lead to unrealistic technology optimism in climate change mitigation. Energy Policy, 39(11), 7448–7454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.09.013.
Bamberg, S., & Möser, G. (2007). Twenty years after Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera: A new meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27(1), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.12.002.
Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: A necessary unity. New York: Bantam.
Bell, S., & Coudert, E. (2005). A practitioner’s guide to ‘Imagine’, the systemic and prospective sustainability analysis. Valbonne. Available at: http://oro.open.ac.uk/161/1/Imagine_book.pdf.
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (2008). Sustainability indicators: Measuring the immeasurable? (Revised). London: Earthscan.
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (2010). Triple task method: Systemic, reflective action research. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 23(6), 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-010-9171-7.
Bell, S. J., & Wilby, J. M. (2012). Editorial: The pattern that connects and the difference that makes a difference. Emergence: Complexity and Organization, 14(1), vii–x.
Blühdorn, I. (2007). Sustaining the unsustainable: Symbolic politics and the politics of simulation. Environmental Politics, 16(2), 251–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010701211759.
Blunden, J., & Arndt, D. S. (Eds.). (2016). State of the climate in 2015. Bulletin of the American Meteorogical Society, 97(8), S1–S275.
Bolderdijk, J. W., Steg, L., Geller, E. S., Lehman, P. K., & Postmes, T. (2012). Comparing the effectiveness of monetary versus moral motives in environmental campaigning. Nature Climate Change, 3(4), 413–416. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1767.
Bond, A. J., & Morrison-Saunders, A. (2009). Sustainability appraisal: Jack of all trades, master of none? Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 27(4), 321–329. https://doi.org/10.3152/146155109X479422.
Bradbury, S., & Middlemiss, L. (2015). The role of learning in sustainable communities of practice. Local Environment, 20(7), 796–810. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2013.872091.
Brulle, R. J. (2013). Institutionalizing delay: Foundation funding and the creation of U.S. climate change counter-movement organizations. Climatic Change, 122(4), 681–694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-1018-7.
Burns, D., & Worsley, S. (2015). Navigating complexity in international development: Facilitating sustainable change at scale. Rugby: Practical Action Publishing Ltd.
Centre for the Evaluation of Complexity Across the Nexus [CECAN]. (2018). Policy evaluation for a complex world. Guildford. Available at: https://www.cecan.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2018-01/CECAN%20Policy%20Evaluation%20for%20a%20Complex%20World%281%29.pdf.
Cinderby, S., Haq, G., Cambridge, H., & Lock, K. (2014). Practical action to build community resilience: The Good Life initiative in New Earswick. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Available at: http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/community-sustainability-environment-full.pdf.
Dahl, A. L. (2012). Achievements and gaps in indicators for sustainability. Ecological Indicators, 17, 14–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.04.032.
Databuild Research & Solutions Ltd. (2013). Community Energy in the UK: A review of the evidence. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/205218/Community_Energy_in_the_UK_review_of_the_evidence.pdf. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/205218/Community_Energy_in_the_UK_review_of_the_evidence.pdf.
Dennard, L. F., Richardson, K. A., & Morçöl, G. (2008). Editorial. In L. F. Dennard, K. A. Richardson, & G. Morçöl (Eds.), Complexity and policy analysis: Tools and methods for designing robust policies in a complex world (pp. 1–18). Goodyear, AZ: ISCE Publishing.
Department of Energy and Climate Change [DECC]. (2014). Community Energy Strategy: Full Report. London: Department of Energy and Climate Change.
Dozois, E., Langlois, M., & Blanchet-Cohen, N. (2010). DE 201: A practitioner’s guide to developmental evaluation. Available at: http://vibrantcanada.ca/files/development_evaluation_201_en.pdf.
Dunkley, R. A., & Franklin, A. (2017). Failing better: The stochastic art of evaluating community-led environmental action programs. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.11.005.
Edwards-Jones, G., Milà i Canals, L., Hounsome, N., Truninger, M., Koerber, G., Hounsome, B., et al. (2008). Testing the assertion that “local food is best”: The challenges of an evidence-based approach. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 19(5), 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2008.01.008.
Einsiedel, E. F., Boyd, A. D., Medlock, J., & Ashworth, P. (2013). Assessing socio-technical mindsets: Public deliberations on carbon capture and storage in the context of energy sources and climate change. Energy Policy, 53, 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.10.042.
Faber, N., Jorna, R., & Van Engelen, J. (2005). The sustainability of “sustainability”—A study into the conceptual foundations of the notion of “sustainability”. Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management, 7(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1464333205001955.
Fagen, M. C., Redman, S. D., Stacks, J., Barrett, V., Thullen, B., & Neiger, B. L. (2011). Developmental evaluation: Building innovations in complex environments. Health Promotion Practice, 12(5), 645–650. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839911412596.
Feola, G., & Nunes, R. (2013). Failure and success of transition initiatives: A study of the international replication of the transition movement, Research note 4. Reading: Walker Institute for Climate System Research. Available at: www.walker-institute.ac.uk/publications/research_notes/WalkerInResNote4.pdf.
Feola, G., & Nunes, R. (2014). Success and failure of grassroots innovations for addressing climate change: The case of the transition movement. Global Environmental Change, 24(1), 232–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.11.011.
Flyvbjerg, B., Landman, T., & Schram, S. (2012). In B. Flyvbjerg, T. Landman, & S. Schram (Eds.), Real social science: Applied phronesis. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Forrest, N., & Wiek, A. (2014). Learning from success—Toward evidence-informed sustainability transitions in communities. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 12, 66–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2014.01.003.
Foster, J. (2015). After sustainability: Denial, hope, retrieval. Oxford: Earthscan.
Fraser, E. D. G., Dougill, A. J., Mabee, W. E., Reed, M., & McAlpine, P. (2006). Bottom up and top down: Analysis of participatory processes for sustainability indicator identification as a pathway to community empowerment and sustainable environmental management. Journal of Environmental Management, 78(2), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.04.009.
Fricker, A. (1998). Measuring up to sustainability. Futures, 30(4), 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-3287(98)00041-X.
Funtowicz, S., & Ravetz, J. (1993). Post-normal science. Futures, 25(7), 739–755. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8350-9053-8_13.
Gamble, J. A. A. (2008). A developmental evaluation primer. Available at: http://vibrantcanada.ca/files/developmental_evaluation_primer_1.pdf.
Garnåsjordet, P. A., Aslaksen, I., Giampietro, M., Funtowicz, S., & Ericson, T. (2012). Sustainable development indicators: From statistics to policy. Environmental Policy and Governance, 22(5), 322–336. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1597.
Gates, E. F. (2016). Making sense of the emerging conversation in evaluation about systems thinking and complexity science. Evaluation and Program Planning, 59, 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.08.004.
Geels, F. W. (2005). Processes and patterns in transitions and system innovations: Refining the co-evolutionary multi-level perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72, 681–696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2004.08.014.
Geels, F. W., & Kemp, R. (2007). Dynamics in socio-technical systems: Typology of change processes and contrasting case studies. Technology in Society, 29(4), 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.08.009.
Gertler, P. J., Martinez, S., Premand, P., Rawlings, L. B., & Vermeersch, C. M. J. (2011). Impact evaluation in practice. Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8541-8.
Giampietro, M., & Saltelli, A. (2014). Footprints to nowhere. Ecological Indicators, 46, 610–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.01.030.
Gibson, R. (2005). Sustainability assessment: Criteria and processes. London: Earthscan.
Gotts, N. M. (2007). Resilience, panarchy, and world-systems analysis. Ecology & Society, 12(1), 24. Available at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art24.
Gunderson, L. H., & Holling, C. S. (Eds.). (2002). Panarchy: Understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Washington, DC: Island Press.
H.M. Treasury. (2011). The Magenta Book: Guidance for evaluation. London.
H.M. Treasury. (2012). Quality in qualitative evaluation: A framework for assessing research evidence (supplemetary Magenta Book guidance). London.
Hamilton, C. (2010). Consumerism, self-creation and prospects for a new ecological consciousness. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18(6), 571–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.09.013.
Hansen, J. (2009). Storms of my grandchildren. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Hansen, J., Sato, M., Hearty, P., Ruedy, R., Kelley, M., Masson-Delmotte, V., et al. (2015). Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: Evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2°C global warming is highly dangerous. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussion, 15, 20059–20179. https://doi.org/10.5194/acpd-15-20059-2015.
Hargreaves, T., Hielscher, S., Seyfang, G., & Smith, A. (2013). Grassroots innovations in community energy: The role of intermediaries in niche development. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 868–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.02.008.
Hayes, H., Witkowski, S., & Smith, L. (2016). Failing forward quickly as a developmental evaluator: Lessons from year one of the LiveWell Kershaw journey. Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation, 12(27), 112–118.
Hertwich, E. G. (2005). Consumption and the rebound effect: An industrial ecology perspective. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9(1–2), 85–98.
Hertwich, E. G., & Peters, G. P. (2009). Carbon footprint of nations: A global, trade-linked analysis. Environmental Science and Technology, 43(16), 6414–6420. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803496a.
Hezri, A. A., & Dovers, S. R. (2006). Sustainability indicators, policy and governance: Issues for ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 60(1), 86–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.019.
Hobson, K., Hamilton, J., & Mayne, R. (2014). Monitoring and evaluation in UK low-carbon community groups: Benefits, barriers and the politics of the local. Local Environment, 21(1), 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2014.928814.
Hobson, K., Mayne, R., & Hamilton, J. (2016). Monitoring and evaluating eco-localisation: Lessons from UK low carbon community groups. Environment and Planning A (Forthcoming). https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518x16640531.
Hoffman, S. M., & High-Pippert, A. (2010). From private lives to collective action: Recruitment and participation incentives for a community energy program. Energy Policy, 38(12), 7567–7574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.06.054.
Ika, L. A. (2012). Project management for development in Africa: Why projects are failing and what can be done about it. Project Management Journal, 43(4), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.
Ika, L. A., & Donnelly, J. (2017). Success conditions for international development capacity building projects. International Journal of Project Management, 35(1), 44–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.10.005.
Jacques, P. J., Dunlap, R. E., & Freeman, M. (2008). The organisation of denial: Conservative think tanks and environmental scepticism. Environmental Politics, 17(3), 349–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010802055576.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Penguin Books.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 47(3), 263–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1536-7150.2011.00774.x.
Kern, F. (2012). Using the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions to assess innovation policy. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 79(2), 298–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2011.07.004.
Knight, A. T., Cowling, R. M., Rouget, M., Balmford, A., Lombard, A. T., & Campbell, B. M. (2008). Knowing but not doing: Selecting priority conservation areas and the research-implementation gap. Conservation Biology, 22(3), 610–617. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00914.x.
Kollmuss, A., & Agyeman, J. (2002). Mind the gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? Environmental Education Research, 8(3), 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350462022014540.
Krause, G., & Welp, M. (2012). Systems thinking and social learning for sustainability. In M. Glaser, G. Krause, B. M. W. Ratter, & M. Welp (Eds.), Human-nature interactions in the Anthropocene: Potentials of social-ecological systems analysis (pp. 13–33). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Lawrence, D. P. (2007). Impact significance determination—Pushing the boundaries. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 27(8), 770–788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2007.02.010.
Letcher, R., Roberts, S., & Redgrove, Z. (2007). Mobilising individual behavioural change through community initiatives: Lessons for tackling climate change. The Energy Review Study [on-line]. https://www.cse.org.uk/downloads/reports-and-publications/community-energy/behaviour-change/mobilising-individual-behavioural-change-through-community-summary.pdf. Bristol.
Lyons, M. (2005). Knowledge and the modelling of complex systems. Futures, 37, 711–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2004.11.009.
Mascarenhas, A., Coelho, P., Subtil, E., & Ramos, T. B. (2010). The role of common local indicators in regional sustainability assessment. Ecological Indicators, 10(3), 646–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2009.11.003.
McCormick, K., Anderberg, S., Coenen, L., & Neij, L. (2013). Advancing sustainable urban transformation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 50, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.01.003.
McDonald, H. (2016). Developmental evaluation: A tool to support innovation. Evaluation Matters—He Take Tō Te Aromatawai, 2, 79–97. https://doi.org/10.18296/em.0012.
Mears, C. A., & Wentz, F. J. (2016). Sensitivity of satellite-derived tropospheric temperature trends to the diurnal cycle adjustment. Journal of Climate. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0744.1.
Middlemiss, L. (2011). The effects of community-based action for sustainability on participants’ lifestyles. Local Environment, 16(3), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2011.566850.
Middlemiss, L., & Parrish, B. D. (2010). Building capacity for low-carbon communities: The role of grassroots initiatives. Energy Policy, 38(12), 7559–7566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.07.003.
Mitchell, M. (2009). Complexity: A guided tour. New York: Oxford University Press.
Moore, D. T. (2011). Sensemaking: A structure for an intelligence revolution. Washington, DC: National Defense Intelligence College.
Mori, K., & Christodoulou, A. (2012). Review of sustainability indices and indicators: Towards a new City Sustainability Index (CSI). Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 32(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2011.06.001.
Morton, T. (2010). The ecological thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
O’Brien, W., & Sarkis, J. (2014). The potential of community-based sustainability projects for deep learning initiatives. Journal of Cleaner Production, 62, 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.001.
Patton, M. Q. (1997). Utilization-focused evaluation (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (2011). Developmental evaluation: Applying complexity concepts to enhance innovation and use. New York: The Guildford Press.
Petersen, J. E., Shunturov, V., Janda, K., Platt, G., & Weinberger, K. (2007). Dormitory residents reduce electricity consumption when exposed to real-time visual feedback and incentives. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 8(1), 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1108/14676370710717562.
Plass, G. N. (1956). The carbon dioxide theory of climatic change. Tellus A, 8(1896), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v8i2.8969.
Ramalingam, B. (2013). Aid on the edge of chaos: Rethinking international development in a complex world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ramírez, R., & Brodhead, D. (2013). Utilization focused evaluation: A primer for evaluators. Penang, Malaysia: Southbound Sdn. Bhd.
Reed, M. S., Fraser, E. D. G., & Dougill, A. J. (2006). An adaptive learning process for developing and applying sustainability indicators with local communities. Ecological Economics, 59(4), 406–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.008.
Rees, W. (2010). What’s blocking sustainability? Human nature, cognition, and denial. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 6(2), 13–25.
Revelle, R., & Suess, H. E. (1957). Carbon dioxide exchange between atmosphere and ocean and the question of an increase of atmospheric CO2 during the past decades. Tellus A, 9(1), 18–27. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v9i1.9075.
Richardson, K., & Cilliers, P. (2001). What is complexity science? A view from different directions. Emergence, 3(1), 5–23.
Rittel, H. W. J., & Weber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01405730.
Rogers, P. (2014). Theory of change, methodological briefs: Impact evaluation 2 (p. 16). Available at: http://devinfolive.info/impact_evaluation/ie/img/downloads/Theory_of_Change_ENG.pdf; http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/747.
Ruiz, A. B. (1996). The contribution of Humberto Maturana to the sciences of complexity and psychology. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 9, 283–302.
Seyfang, G. (2005). Shopping for sustainability: Can sustainable consumption promote ecological citizenship? Environmental Politics, 14(2), 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010500055209.
Seyfang, G., Hielscher, S., Hargreaves, T., Martiskainen, M., & Smith, A. (2014). A grassroots sustainable energy niche? Reflections on community energy in the UK. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2014.04.004.
Shea, J., & Taylor, T. (2017). Using developmental evaluation as a system of organizational learning: An example from San Francisco. Evaluation and Program Planning, 65(July), 84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.07.001.
Singh, R. K., Murty, H. R., Gupta, S. K., & Dikshit, A. K. (2009). An overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. Ecological Indicators, 9(2), 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.05.011.
Smith, A. (2007). Translating sustainabilities between green niches and socio-technical regimes. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 19(4), 427–450. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537320701403334.
Steg, L., & Vlek, C. (2009). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(3), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004.
Thomas, W. H. (2015). The basics of project evaluation and lessons learned (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Tognetti, S. S. (1999). Science in a double-bind: Gregory Bateson and the origins of post-normal science. Futures, 31(7), 689–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-3287(99)00027-0.
Tovey, H. (2009). “Local Food” as a contested concept: Networks, knowledges and power in food-based strategies for rural development. International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture & Food, 16(2), 21–35.
Turcu, C. (2013). Re-thinking sustainability indicators: Local perspectives of urban sustainability. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 56(5), 695–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2012.698984.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458.
UK Parliament. (2008). Climate Change Act. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39469.569815.47.
Walton, M. (2014). Applying complexity theory: A review to inform evaluation design. Evaluation and Program Planning, 45, 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2014.04.002.
Weiss, C. H. (1995). Nothing as practical as good theory: Exploring theory-based evaluation for comprehensive community initiatives for children and families. In J. Connell, A. Kubisch, L. Schorr, & C. Weiss (Eds.), New approaches to evaluating community initiatives (pp. 65–92). Washington, DC: Aspen Institute.
Wiek, A., Xiong, A., Brundiers, K., & van der Leeuw, S. (2014). Integrating problem—And project-based learning into sustainability programs. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 15(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-02-2013-0013.
World Resources Institute (WRI). (2009). The National Adaptive Capacity Framework: Key institutional functions for a changing climate. Washington, DC. Available at: http://www.wri.org.
Xia, B., Chen, Q., Skitmore, M., Zuo, J., & Li, M. (2014). Comparison of sustainable community rating tools in Australia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 109, 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.016.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mitchell, A. (2019). Evaluating Complexity. In: Second-order Learning in Developmental Evaluation. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99371-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99371-3_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Pivot, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-99370-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-99371-3
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)